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ENGLISH  PROBLEMS 
IN  THE  SOLVING 

For  the  Junior  and  Senior  High  Schools 


BY 

SARAH  E.  SIMONS,  M.  A. 

HEAD   OF  THE  DEPARTMENT  OP  ENGLISH,   WASHINGTON,   D.  C. 
HIGH  SCHOOLS 


*  •'   1    ."•V   ^\* 


SCOTT,  FORESMAN  AND  COMPANY 
CHICAGO  NEW  YORK 


l'^ 


V 

Copyright,  1920 

BY 

SCOTT,  FORESMAN  AND  COMPANY 


•  ••'••    • 
•  ••"••    • 

•  ••  •    •  • 


PREFACE 

This  book  grew  out  of  a  course  of  lectures  on  the 
teaching  of  English,  delivered  in  the  Summer  Schools 
of  Johns  Hopkins  University  for  the  years  1918  and 
1919.  In  response  to  the  request  from  some  of  my  stu- 
'  dents  that  our  discussions  of  the  problems  confronting 
the  English  teacher  should  take  on  a  more  or  less 
permanent  form  these  lectures  are  now  being  pub- 
lished. 

Certain  additional  chapters  are  included  because  of 
the  peculiar  significance  they  hold  for  all  teachers  of 
English.  It  gives  me  great  pleasure  to  state  that  they 
are  the  work  of  two  of  my  Washington  colleagues, 
Miss  Emily  F.  Sleman  and  Miss  Anne  McColm,  both 
teachers  in  the  Central  High  School.  I  wish  to  ex- 
press to  them  here  not  only  my  great  indebtedness 
for  allowing  their  contributions  to  appear  in  this 
volume,  but  also  my  sincere  appreciation  of  their  very 
material  aid  in  the  organization  of  this  book. 

My  tht  iks  are  due  to  Mr.  James  Fleming  Hosic, 
Mr.  Samuel  Thurber,  and  Mr.  H.  G.  Paul  for  the 
privilege  of  quoting  freely  from  their  respective 
periodicals:  The  English  Journal;  The  English 
Leaflet;  and  the  Bulletin  of  the  Illinois  Association 
of  Teachers  of  English. 

Sarah  E.  Simons 


".OUC.  DtPT. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


Chapter  I.    Preliminaries         •  page 

The  Junior  High  School 7 

Definition  and  Aims 

I.  Composition 11 

11.  Literature 15 

Minimum  Essentials  for  Junior  High-School  English 19 

The  Separation  of  Composition  and  Literature 22 

The  Problem  of  the  Start '. 26 

The  Problem  of  the  Assignment 34 

The  Problem  of  Correlation. 37 

Chapter  II.    Fundamentals  ^ 

The  Problem  of  Grammar 42 

The  Problem  of  Punctuation 48 

The  Problem  of  Spelling 56 

The  Problem  of  the  Vocabulary .  .^^ ^^.^.,^ 62 

Chapter  III.    Oral  and  Written  Expression 
The  Problem  of  Better  Speech 

I.  Oral  English 71 

II.  Public  Speaking 81 

The  Problem  of  Written  Work 84 

The  Problem  of  the  Letter 95 

The  Problem  of  Theme  Correcting 104 

Measurement  of  Results 109 

Chapter  IV.    Interpretation  of  Literature 

The  Choice  of  Literature 112 

The  Teaching  of  Literature 117 

The  Problem  of  Reading 130 

Imitation  a  Means  of  Appreciation 139 

Dramatization  a  Means  of  Appreciation 148 

5 


^33S(i2 


6  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

Chapter  V.    Some  Special  Problems  page 

American  Literature 161 

The  Magazine 167 

The  World  War  and  the  EngUsh  Class 173 

The  History  of  Literature 176 

The  Teaching  of  Poetry 

I.  In  the  Junior  High  School 180 

II.  In  the  Senior  High  School 189 

The  Drama 197 

Chapter  VI.    The  Teaching  of  Certain  Classics 

The  Odyssey 202 

Shakespeare 211 

I.  In  the  Junior  High  School 212 

II.  In  the  Senior  High  School 213 

Burke 221 

Bibliographical  Hints  and  General  Bibltographt 

BibHographical  Hints 231 

Bibhography 

General  Method ' 233 

The  Teaching  of  Enghsh  Composition 234 

The  Teaching  of  Literature 234 

Periodicals 235 

Index 237 


^     CHAPTER     ONE 


PRELIMINARIES 


The  Junior  High  School.  Definition  and  Aims.  Minimum  Essen- 
tials for  Junior  High-School  English.  The  Separation  of 
Composition  and  Literature.  The  Problem  of  the  Start.  The 
Problem  of  the  Assignment.     The  Problem  of  Correlation. 

THE  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOL 

The  Junior  High  School  is  now  an  accepted  fact  in 
the  organization  of  school  systems  all  over  the  country. 
It  has  come  into  existence  as  a  result  of  scientific  study 
of  the  best  means  of  adjusting  the  school  to  the 
physical  and  psychological  development  of  the  child. 

For  the  most  part,  this  new  scheme  of  organization 
has  stressed  economy  of  time,  better  mastery  of  sub- 
ject-matter through  departmental  teaching,  early  elecr 
tion,  and  subject  promotion.  In  nearly  every  case  in 
which  the  subject-matter  of  the  junior  high  school  has 
been  discussed,  little  or  nothing  has  been  said  under 
any  of  these  heads  regarding  the  teaching  of  English 
in  the  junior  high  school.  Naturally  enough,  perhaps, 
in  its  beginnings  the  new  school  would  be  concerned 
with  the  two  entirely  new  things  which  the  system 
brought  with  it — the  study  of  languages  in  the  seventh 
and  eighth  grades  and  the  introduction  of  vocational 
subjects.  The  fact  that  the  teaching  of  English  is  con- 
tinuous from  the  first  grade  through  the  senior  high 
school  has,  perhaps,  made  it  seem  unnecessary  to  make 
any  changes  in  method.  But  this  new  arrangement 
does   mean   and   should   mean   a   re-examination   of 


8  ,..;  *.;;  BSdlLISH  "PkOBLEMS 

method  and  of  choice  of  subject-matter  in  the  teaching 
of  English  in  the  junior  high  school. 

Mr.  Charles  S.  Pendleton  says:  "I  believe  that  it 
(the  junior  high  school)  has  come  to  stay,  and  I  be- 
lieve still  further  that  it  requires  us  to  consider,  not 
merely  a  new  kind  of  teaching  of  English  but  two  new 
kinds."^  Certainly,  if  the  difference  in  the  physical, 
mental,  and  psychological  equipment  of  the  child  is  so 
divergent  in  the  pre-adolescent  age  from  that  of  the 
adolescent  as  to  necessitate  a  reorganization  of  the 
whole  school  system,  some  very  definite  account  of 
those  differences  must  be  taken  in  planning  and  teach- 
ing the  course  in  English.  Those  of  us  who  have 
taught  in  the  four-year  high-school  course  have  always 
noticed  the  essential  difference  in  the  attitude  and  in- 
terests of  the  first-year  pupils  as  compared  with  those 
of  the  upper  years.  We  have  felt,  too,  the  difficulty  in 
bridging  over  the  gap  between  the  grade-school  prep- 
aration in  English  and  the  first  year  of  high-school 
English.  With  the  junior  high  school  in  operation 
we  have  the  opportunity  and  the  duty  of  planning 
more  definitely  to  adapt  the  work  in  English  to  the 
particular  needs  of  these  three  very  important  years 
in  the  junior  high  school. 

Before  formulating  a  definite  course  for  these  three 
years  let  us  see  in  general  what  our  aim  should  be,  and 
what  advantages  this  new  scheme  of  organization  will 
bring  to  the  teaching  of  English^  To  take  up  the 
second  point  first,  it  ought  to  mean  the  possibility  of 
setting  a  standard  of  achievement  at  the  end  of  the 
junior  high-school  course  which  will  make  the  entrance 
preparation  for  the  senior  high   school  much  more 

1.  From  "The  New  Teacher  of  English"  in  the  English  Journal,  Nov. 
1917. 


PRELIMINARIES  9 

uniform  than  was  possible  under  the  old  system  where 
the  eighth-grade  teacher,  heavily  burdened  with  ex- 
ecutive responsibilities,  divided  her  teaching  attention 
among  many  subjects.  Then,  too,  in  the  old  system  of 
promotion  on  a  general  average  it  has  often  been  the 
case  that  arithmetic  or  some  other  one  subject  has 
been  a  sort  of  criterion  of  passing,  and  pupils  notably 
deficient  in  English  have  gone  into  the  high  school 
to  become  a  drag  upon  the  classes  there.  With  sub- 
ject promotion  no  student  may  enter  the  senior  high 
school  without  passing  in  EngUsh.  The  junior  high 
school  might  then,  first  of  all,  solve  the  problem  of 
the  senior  high  school  by  making  it  possible  for  the 
senior  high  school  to  work  out  its  aims  upon  a  basis 
of  uniform  and  adequate  preparation. 

This  is  not,  however,  the  only  benefit  which  we  may 
expect  as  a  result  of  the  successful  working  out  of  the 
junior  high  school  nor  the  most  important  to  be  kept 
in  mind;  for  the  junior  high  school  will  be  for  many 
boys  and  girls  the  end  of  their  formal  school  educa- 
tion. It  therefore  becomes  a  matter  of  the  greatest 
importance  that  the  pupil  who  ^  leaves  school  as  soon 
as  he  has  passed  the  compulsory  school  age  should  be 
equipped  to  go  out  into  life  with  as  thorough  training 
in  English  as  it  is  possible  to  give  him.  The  junior 
high  school  with  its  departmental  teaching  offers  the 
opportunity  of  concentrating  upon  the  training  of  the 
pupils  in  their  use  of  the  most  important  tool  they 
will  need — whether  they  go  into  the  senior  high  school 
or  into  business — accurate  and  forceful  English. 

For  the  junior  high  school  itself  what  shall  be  the 
aims,  the  methods,  and  the  results  to  be  achieved? 
In  the  first  place,  junior  high-school  teaching  will 


10  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

need  experts  with  an  equipment  not  inferior  to  that 
of  senior  high-school  teachers.  It  will  demand,  per- 
haps, even  more  in  pedagogical  skill.  There  is  no  age 
more  difficult  than  that  which  the  junior  high  school 
houses — neither  fish,  flesh,  nor  fowl. 

In  literature  the  work  in  the  junior  high  school 
should  be  extensive  rather  than  intensive.  Much 
reading  should  be  encouraged,  and  in  the  reading  em- 
phasis should  be  placed  upon  the  pupil's  own  response 
to  what  he  reads  without  much  conscious  reflection 
upon  the  subject-matter,  either  for  analysis  or  criti- 
cism. It  is  largely  a  matter  of  exposing  the  pupil  at  a 
time  of  great  absorbing  faculty  to  much  that  is  good 
in  order  that  his  tastes  may  be  guided  and  set  in  the 
right  direction.  Literary  criticism  and  history  are  of 
little  importance.  In  the  senior  high  school,  where 
the  mind  of  the  student  is  interested  in  relations,  the 
reading  of  literature  should  be  associated  with  a  study 
of  types  and  with  the  history  of  the  period. 

The  character  of  the  literature  should  be  largely 
narrative  and  biographical.  Much  supplementary 
reading  should  be  done.  The  classes  should  constitute 
themselves  into  reading  clubs,  and  if  libraries  are  not 
easily  accessible,  the  teacher  should  endeavor  to  get  a 
loan  collection  of  good  books  to  have  in  the  classroom 
for  the  use  of  pupils.  Most  of  the  classroom  work  in 
literature  in  the  junior  high  school  should  be  oral. 
Reading  aloud,  recitation  of  memorized  portions,  little 
dramatizations  should  constitute  the  work  in  litera- 
ture. The  pupil  in  the  junior  high  school  is  finding 
himself  in  literature.  He  cannot  do  so  without  much 
experience,  and  since  wide  reading  is  the  only  method 


PRELIMINARIES  11 

of  providing  this  experience,  the  assignment  and  direc- 
tion of  supplementary  reading  become  matters  of 
paramount  importance.  Failing  to  do  our  duty  in  this 
respect,  we  shall  leave  the  boys  and  girls  a  prey  to 
the  twenty-volume  series  of  uninspired  books  that 
crowd  the  juvenile  shelves. 

In  composition,  on  the  contrary,  the  work  should  be 
intensive,  with  accuracy  as  the  aim.  The  pupil's  work 
in  the  sentence  should  be  as  definite  and  as  pains- 
taking as  his  excursions  into  literature  are  varied  and 
care-free.  For  his  future  work  in  the  senior  high 
school  he  needs  this  fundamental  basis.  For  his 
future  life,  if  there  is  to  be  no  senior  high  school  for 
him,  he  needs  still  more  to  know  how  to  use,  orally 
and  in  writing,  good,  clear,  forceful  English  so  that  he 
may  communicate  effectively  with  his  fellow  men. 

Emily  F.  Sleman 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Douglass,  A.  A.    The  Junior  High  School.    Fifteenth  Tear  Book 
of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  Part  III 
(contains  bibliography). 
Inglis,  A.    Principles  of  Secondary  Education,  Chapter  VII. 
Library  Leaflet: 

Certain,  C.  C.  No.  5,  May,  1919  (exhaustive  bibliography). 
Teachers'  College  Record:    ' 

Miles,   W.    R.      "Comparison    of   Elementary   and    High 
Schools,"  May  1915. 
•  

DEFINITION  AND  AIMS 

/.     Composition 
The    definition    of    language    as    "the    vehicle    of 
vocabulary   for   the  conveyance   of  ideas"   suggests, 


12  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

perhaps,  the  main  aim  in  the  teaching  of  composition. 
The  function  of  language  is  communication.  Mr.  Leon- 
ard says  that  composition  is  not  so  much  putting  ideas 
together  as  it  is  ''putting  them  across."^  The  power  to 
make  one's  wants  and  desires  known  to  his  fellows 
implies  a  knowledge  of  symbols  that  are  in  general  use 
for  the  expression  of  thought.  Hence  the  purpose  of 
teaching  composition  is  to  give  the  student  such  a 
command  over  these  symbols  as  will  enable  him  to 
make  his  wants  and  desires  known  to  his  fellows,  with 
the  least  waste  of  effort  and  the  greatest  economic  gain. 
Now  what  does  "the  least  waste  of  effort  and  the  great- 
est economic  gain"  imply?  What  else  than  power  to 
use  language  correctly  and  ability  to  express  thought 
accurately?  But  we  must  not  forget  another  function 
of  language.  It  is  a  thought  producer.  Before  we  can 
communicate  thoughts  we.  must  have  formed  thoughts 
to  communicate.  And  language  is  a  valuable  aid  in 
thought  precipitation,  in  reducing  ideas  to  a  definite 
shape,  nay,  in  actually  producing  ideas  out  of  the 
vague  nebula  of  our  mental  processes.  Hence  one  of 
the  aims  in  the  study  of  the  use  of  language,  the  study 
of  composition,  should  be  to  stimulate  thought  getting, 
to  crystallize  thought. 

The  pupil  should  economize  your  time  and  his  and 
the  time  of  all  with  whom  he  wishes  to  communicate. 
This  he  can  do  by  knowing  exactly  what  he  wants  to 
say  before  he  says  it.  A  request  that  has  to  be  inter- 
preted falls  flat;  an  exposition  that  needs  to  be  ex- 
plained is  unconvincing.    Accuracy,  first  in  the  formu- 

1.   The  English  Leaflet,  April,   1918.   p.   2. 


PRELIMINARIES  13 

lation  of  thought  and  next  in  the  expression  of  that 
thought,  is  the  great  desideratum. 

On  this  point  a  letter  written  by  Adjutant 
General  H.  P.  McCain  to  the  President  of  the  Penn- 
sylvania Military  College,  August  28,  1917,  relative 
to  the  causes  for  the  rejection  of  candidates  for  re- 
serve officers  at  the  training  camps,  is  pertinent.  He 
says  in  part,  ^'Many  men  fail  to  measure  up  to  the 
requirements  set  for  our  Officers  Reserve  because 
they  ^have  not  been  trained  to  appreciate  the  im- 
portance of  accuracy  in  thinking.  Too  many  schools 
are  satisfied  with  an  approximate  answer  to  a  question. 
Little  or  no  incentive  is  given  increased  mental  effort 
to  coordinate  one's  ideas  and  present  them  clearly  and 
unequivocally.  Insistence  upon  decision  in  thought 
and  expression  should  never  be  lost  sight  of.  This 
requires  eternal  vigilance  on  the  part  of  every  teacher. 
It  is  next  to  impossible  for  military  instructors  to  do 
much  to  counteract  the  negligence  of  schools  in  this 
regard.  This  again  has  cost  many  men  their  commis- 
sions at  camp.  Three  months  is  too  short  a  time  in 
which  to  teach  an  incorrigible  "beater- about- the-bush" 
that  there  is  but  one  way  to  answer  a  question,  oral  or 
written,  and  that  is  positively,  clearly,  and  accurately. 
The  form  of  the  oral  answer  in  our  schools  should  be 
made  an  important  consideration  of  instruction.'^ 

We  teachers  must  resist  the  temptation  to  supple- 
ment or  interpret  the  pupil's  answer.  The  pupil  must 
be  held  responsible  for  what  he  says;  he  must  learn 
to  stand  on  his  own  feet,  unsupported. 

Since  the  main  function  of  language  is  communica- 
tion of  thought,  real  situations  and  real  people  should 


14  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

offer  the  point  of  departure  in  language  training.  Self- 
expression,  not  re-expression  of  someone  else's  thought, 
should  be  the  practice.  Hence  pupils  should  be  led 
to  talk  and  write  to  a  real  audience  about  things  within 
their  own  experience  with  a  definite  purpose  in  mind 
to  convince,  to  explain,  to  interest,  or  to  amuse.  Thus 
the  letter  becomes  a  very  important  item  in  the  writ- 
ten composition  course. 

The  point  of  view,  then,  in  the  teaching  of  English 
composition  should  be  that  of  language  as  a  tool,  as  a 
means  to  an  end,  the  end  being  the  intelligent  and 
intelligible  communication  of  thought  by  the  employ- 
ment of  symbols  that  are  in  general  use.  The  study 
of  English  composition  should  furnish  the  pupil  with 
an  effective  instrument  for  intercourse  with  others 
whether  that  intercourse  be  oral  or  wTitten.  Hence 
the  mechanics  of  oral  speech  for  which  we  should 
strive  are:  (1)  distinct  and  natural  articulation,  (2) 
correct  pronunciation,  and  (3)  a  clear,  well-managed 
voice ;  and  the  mechanics  of  written  speech  upon  which 
we  should  insist  are:  (1)  legible  handwriting,  (2)  cor- 
rect spelling,  (3)  correct  grammar  and  idiom  (these  to 
be  required  also  in  oral  speech),  and  (4)  intelligent 
punctuation. 

May  we  not  then  sum  up  the  aims  of  the  high-school 
course  in  composition  as  follows: 
^  1.  To  fix  the  habit  of  correct  use  of  the  English 
language  in  speaking  and  writing  by  cultivating  the 
pupil's  ear  and  eye  so  that  he  shall  be  sensitive  to 
mistakes;  by  stressing  the  importance  of  correct  Eng- 
lish in  social  life ;  and  by  emphasizing  its  market  value 
in  the  business  world. 


PRELIMINARIES  15 

2.  To  fix  the  habit  of  accurate  expression  of  thought 
so  that  the  pupil  will  say  just  what  he  means  in  the 
clearest  possible  way,  by  developing  the  power  of  con- 
centration and  the  habit  of  thinking  before  speaking. 

And  will  not  such  aims  consistently  adhered  to 
throughout  the  course  give  the  community  what  it  de- 
sires :  a  high-school  graduate  who,  in  the  words  of  Mr. 
Charles  S.  Pendleton^  "shall  have  learned,  first,  to 
stand  on  his  feet  and  talk  convincingly,  conveying  to 
other  people  effectively  what  he  himself  has  thought 
and  felt;  second,  to  write  his  message,  and  by  means  of 
the  written  word  to  convey  powerfully  to  his  audience 
whatever  he  has  to  say.'' 

For  an  admirable  statement  of  aims  in  the  teaching 
of  English  composition  for  both  the  junior  and  the 
senior  high  schools  year  by  year  see  The  Reorganiza- 
tion Bulletin,  pages  30-38.    \ 

//.    Literature 

Now  what  aims  shall  we  set  before  us  in  this  task 
of  teaching  literature  to  high-school  students?  At 
what  angle  or  angles  shall  we  view  literature  for 
this  purpose?  Note  Mr.  Hosic's  definition:  ''By  litera- 
ture we  shall  mean,  then,  that  species  of  idealization 
of  human  experience  which  employs  language  as  its 
medium — poetry,  plays,  novels,  essays.  We  recognize 
it  not  as  something  apart  from  life  but  as  the  very  con- 
summation and  fine-flowering  of  life.  In  a  word,  it  is 
such  an  interpretation  of  life  as  enables  us,  through 
vicarious  experience,  to  understand  and  appropriate 

1,  In  his  article  in  The  English  Journal  for  November,  1917,  on 
"The  New  English  Teacher." 


16  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

the  higher  and  richer  aspects  of  living."^  We  want  the 
human,  not  the  "booky,"  view  as  Mr.  Chubb^  puts  it, 
so  that  we  may  interpret  the  literature  of  the  past 
in  terms  of 'the  life  of  the  present,  of  the  life  about 
us.  To  quote  Mr.  Pendleton  again,  we  should  aim  to 
develop  in  the  pupil  the  power  "in  his  leisure  hours  or 
other  while  to  listen  to  the  speech  or  read  the  writing 
of  someone  else,  someone  who  is  a  master  in  the  use  of 
language,  and  to  appreciate  and  enjoy  what  thus  comes 
to  him/'^ 

For  widening  the  experience  of  the  child,  for 
stimulating  his  imagination,  for  introducing  him  to  far 
countries  and  strange  peoples,  and  then  again  to  things 
and  people  near  and  familiar — in  a  word,  to  reveal  to 
him  the  human  touch  in  what  he  reads — for  these 
reasons  we  give  our  literature  course,  which  in  the 
junior  high  school  resolves  itself  into  a  reading  course. 

The  aims  in  giving  literature  courses  to  our  boys  and 
girls  may  be  roughly  summed  up  as  follows.  The  im- 
mediate aims  are:  (1)  to  keep  alive  and  foster  the 
constructive  imagination  of  the  child;  (2)  to  arouse 
an  interest  in  words,  mere  words,  so  that  his  vocabu- 
lary is  constantly  increasing  ("the  words  assassin  and 
bedlam  have  been  known  to  offer  as  much  narrative 
interest  as  a  short  story,"  says  Miss  Morse,  in  The 
English  Journal  for  June,  1919) ;  (3)  to  give  the  pupil 
power  to  read  silently,  rapidly,  and  accurately;  (4) 
to  give  him  power  to  read  aloud  acceptably;  (5)  to 
create  the  desire  to  make  use  of  reading  as  a  tool  for 
increasing  knowledge.     Ultimately  it  is  hoped  that 

1.  The  English  Leaflet,  April,  1917.  p.  9. 

2.  The  Teaching  of  English,  Chap.  XX. 

3.  The  English  Journal,  November,   1917. 


PRELIMINARIES  17 

the  course  will  broaden  the  vision,  lift  the  horizon, 
enable  the  pupil  to  travel  far  and  see  much  vicariously 
of  other  lands  and  times,  and  through  such  experiences 
to  learn  to  see  the  beauty  in  the  common  things  about 
him,  to  appreciate  the  near  and  close  at  hand. 

In  the  teaching  of  literature  the  avocational  aim 
should  be  paramount.  It  is,  indeed,  of  far  greater  im- 
portance than  the  vocational  aim.  Today,  when  the 
whole  work-a-day  world  is  rapidly  coming  to  be  planned 
on  the  eight-hour  basis,  it  is  imperative  that  we  teach 
our  children  how  to  use  their  leisure  time.  And  here 
the  teacher  of  literature  can  do  more  than  the  teacher 
of  any  other  subject.  The  pupil  who  leaves  the  junior 
high  school  with  the  power  to  take  real  pleasure  in 
the  reading  of  a  good  book  carries  a  weapon  of  defense 
against  many  of  the  so-called  pleasures  of  youth, 
pleasures  which  are  of  occasional  value,  it  is  true,  but 
whose  habitual  indulgence  makes  them,  indeed,  but 
"vanity  of  vanities." 

May  we  not  then  summarize  our  aims  as  follows: 

1.  To  teach  the  pupil  how  to  get  the  thought  from 

the  printed  page;  how  to  interpret  the 
author's  meaning  in  terms  of  his  own  ex- 
perience; in  a  word,  to  read  intelligently. 

2.  To  develop  the  power  to  read  aloud  acceptably. 

3.  To  create  the  reading  habit. 

4.  To  develop  to  a  slight  degree,  at  least,  such  an 

appreciation  of  literary  values  as  will  enable 
the  pupil  to  discriminate  somewhat  between 
the  worth-while  and  the  worthless  in  litera- 
ture. 


18  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

5.  To  create  in  the  pupil  the  desire  to  use  some  of 
his  leisure  hours  in  the  reading  of  good  books. 

FOR  FURTHER  THOUGHT 

1.  "Would  you  consider  the  vocational  aims  in  the  teaching  of 
literature  to  high-school  students'?    If  so,  what  and  why? 

2.  If  an  elective  course  is  given  in  journalism  or  the  writing 
of  the  short  story,  in  the  senior  high  school,  show  how  the  study 
of  literature  would  help.  Tell  just  what  literature  you  would  use 
in  such  coifrses.  ■• 

3.  Should  immediate  rather  than  remote  aims  dominate  the 
course? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Brown,  Rollo.     How  the  French  Boy  Learns  to  Write. 

Denny,  J.  V.  Johnston's  High-School  Education,  "English," 
Chap.  XL 

Leonard,  S.  A.    English  Composition  As  a  Social  Problem. 

Reorganization  of  English  in  Secondary  Schools,  pp.  30-38,  Bul- 
letin 1917,  No.  2,  Bureau  of  Education.  (See  also  Bibli- 
ography on  page  160  of  Bulletin.) 

The  English  Leaflet: 

Leonard,  A.   W.     "Themes  for  a  Reading  Public,"  April, 

1918. 
Ward,  C.  H.    "Defending  Camelot,"  October,  1916. 

The  English  Journal: 

Mclntyre,  Mrs.  H.  I.     "Giving  a  Purpose  to   Students  of 

High-School  English,"  October,  1917. 
Osgood,  C.  G.    "The  Artistic  Teaching  of  English,"  January, 

1918. 
Pendleton,  C.   S.     "The  New  English  Teacher,"  November, 

1917. 
Rapeer,  L.  W.    "The  Outside  of  the  Cup,"  June,  1916. 
Thompson,  Margaret.     "The  Task  of  the  English  Teacher," 

The  Round  Table,  September,  1916. 
Waldo,  Dorothy.    "English  for  Peter,"  June,  1917. 
Ward,   C.   H.     "We  Must   Not  Be  Enemies,"   The   Round 

Table,  February,  1916. 


PRELIMINARIES  19 

MINIMUM    ESSENTIALS    FOR    JUNIOR    HIGH-SCHOOL 
ENGLISH 

What  should  be  the  minimum  essentials  in  English 
Composition  for  promotion  into  the  senior  high  school? 
What  should  the  junior  high  school  give  the  pupil 
after  three  years  of  study  of  the  English  language? 
The  answer  is  brief.  A  knowledge  of  the  sentence.  If 
the  child  brings  with  him  a  keen  sentence  sense,  a  real 
working  knowledge  of  the  sentence,  he  will  bring 
enough. 

'The  sentence  is  the  unit  of  most  importance  in  all 
language  teaching — in  the  teaching  of  grammar,  of 
composition,  and  of  literature,"  says  Rollo  Brown  in 
his  book,  How  the  French  Boy  Learns  to  Write. 

A  Yale  professor  of  literature  was  recently  asked 
what  the  college  would  like  most  stress  put  upon  in^ 
the  schools.  ''The  sentence"  was  his  unqualified  an- 
swer. The  children,  first,  last,  and  ,all  the  time,  must 
show  an  intelligent  reaction  to  the  sentence.  So  it  is 
with  the  sentence  that  we  must  begin,  and  it  is  indeed 
often  with  the  sentence  that  we  should  end.  The 
sentence  is  the  Alpha  and  Omega  of  all  language  work. 

The  pupil  should  know  the  sentence  from  the  angle 
of  grammar,  as  a  complete  statement  in  which  every 
word  plays  a  definite  part. 

He  should  know  the  sentence  from  the  angle  of  com- 
position, as  a  unit  of  thought  used  along  with  others 
of  its  kind  to  build  up  a  larger  thought  than  can  be 
expressed  by  the  small  unit. 

He  should  understand  that  thought  compels  struc- 
ture ;  that  the  kind  of  sentence  used  in  any  given  case 
will  depend  upon  the  kind  of  thought  that  is  to  be 
expressed. 


20  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

Hence  the  pupil  should  know-  the  parts  of  speech  as 
they  function  in  the  sentence,  as  they  help  along  the 
thought  of  the  sentence. 

He  should  know  the  phrase  and  the  clause  as  they 
function  in  the  sentence  as  parts  of  speech. 

He  should  know  the  use  of  necessary  marks  of 
punctuation  whose  only  excuse  for  being  is  to  help 
along  the  thought  of  the  sentence. 

The  knowledge  of  these  things  he  should  possess  as 
his  instrument  for  the  fashioning  of  thought.  These 
are  the  means  which  he  should  apply  toward  his  end — 
the  communication  of  ideas  to  his  fellows. 

If  the  sentence  is  taught  from  the  first  not  as  an 
isolated  unit,  but  in  relation  to  other  units  of  thought, 
the  idea  of  the  paragraph  will  be  gained  unconsciously, 
and  more  definite  work  in  this  larger  unit  of  thought 
will  come  as  a  matter  of  course  in  the  senior  high 
school.  The  pupil  will  then  be  ready  to  understand 
the  cumulation  of  sentences  in  building  up  a  larger 
thought  unit;  the  part  of  each  sentence  in  develop- 
ing the  paragraph  thought;  the  idea  of  sentence  con- 
trol of  paragraph  thought. 

In  the  matter  of  oral  English  it  is  desirable  that  the 
pupil  when  entering  the  senior  high  school  should  be 
able  (1)  to  ask  intelligent  questions  of  the  teacher  or 
classmates  about  any'  subject  which  is  under  discus- 
sion; (2)  to  answer  accurately  and  without  help  from 
the  teacher  any  question  (on  which  he  is  informed,  of 
course)  that  is  put  to  him  by  the  teacher  or  his  class- 
mates; and  (3)  to  speak  connectedly  on  some  subject 
that  interests  him  for  two  or  three  minutes. 


PRELIMINARIES  21 

The  pupil  should  be  able  to  write  in  class  at  least 
two  paragraphs  or  groups  of  related ,  sentences  about 
something  within  his  own  experience.  He  should  be 
able  to  proof-read  his  work  so  that  when  it  comes  to 
his  teacher  it  shall  contain  no  glaring  grammatical 
faults  and  no  misspelled  words.  (He  should  be  en- 
couraged to  use  the  dictionary  freely.)  The  pupil's 
handwriting  should  be  legible. 

Now  in  spelling  what  shall  the  pupil  bring  with 
him? 

May  we  not  at  least  ask  for: 

1.  Desire  to  spell  correctly. 

2.  Knowledge  of  how  to  use  the  dictionary. 

3.  Habit  of  using  the  dictionary. 

When  the  pupil  enters  the  senior  high-school  litera- 
ture class  he  should  bring  with  him  the  power  to  read 
to  himself  intelligently  (silent  reading)  and  the  power 
to  read  to  others  intelligibly  (oral  reading).  He  should 
be  able  to  read  in  a  voice  that  is  audible  to  the  person 
farthest  away  from  him;  his  word-endings  should  be 
clear-cut;  run-together  phrases  such  as  "would  uv/' 
"had  uv"  should  not  grate  upon  our  ear.  He  should 
be  able  to  listen  with  interest  to  the  reading  of  his 
teacher  or  classmates  and  to  reproduce  what  he  has 
heard ;  he  should  have  the  desire  to  spend  some  of  his 
leisure  time  in  reading  other  books  of  the  authors 
studied  in  his  literature  course. 

With  such  an  equipment  further  work  in  the  English 
course  in  both  composition  and  literature  will  be  a  real 
pleasure  to  all  concerned. 


22  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

The  Reorganization  Bulletin,  pp.  114,  119,  123-128,  151. 
The  English  Journal: 

Fish,  S.  A.     "What  Should  Pupils  Know  in  English  When 

They  Enter  High  School?"  March,  1914. 
Fontaine,  M.  B.     "Articulation  of  English  in  the  Elementary 

and  High  Schools,"  September,  1914. 
Randall,  Julia.    "My  Bridge  Approach,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  551. 
"Report  of  the  Committee  on  the  Economy  of  Time,"  Febru- 
ary, 1919. 


THE  SEPARATION  OF  COMPOSITION  AND  LITERATURE 

How  much  time  shall  we  give  to  the  study  of  com- 
position? How  much  to  hterature?  Effort  to  improve 
the  pupil's  expressional  work  both  oral  and  written 
should  be  made  in  the  teaching  of  every  subject.  Clear, 
accurate  expression  of  thought  should  be  insisted  on  in 
every  class.  Intelligent  answers  phrased  in  language 
which  observes  the  rules  of  good  usage  should  be  re- 
quired by  every  teacher  in  the  schools.  We  can  never 
escape  composition  work;  but  definite  study  of  Eng- 
lish composition  as  distinct  from  the  study  of  English 
literature  should  occupy  at  least  one  half  the  time 
allotted  to  the  English  course.  Recently  many  schools 
have  been  separating  the  English  course  into  two 
parts,  the  study  of  composition  and  the  study  of 
literature,  alternating  the  work  in  various  ways  by 
days,  weeks,  or  semesters.  In  Washington,  Detroit, 
Madison,  and  Chicago  the  semester  plan  has  been 
adopted  as  the  most  satisfactory.  It  is  in  operation 
now  and  is  working  well  both  administratively  and 
educationally.     Reports  from  the  schools  that  have 


PRELIMINARIES  23 

adopted  the  separation  plan  of  the  study  of  English 
seem  to  prove  the  success  of  the  experiment.  No 
school  that  has  adopted  it  has  gone  back  to  the  old 
plan. 

"Failure  to  distinguish  between  the  primary  aims 
and  values  of  the  study  of  language  per  se,  the  study 
of  literature  for  social  ends,  and  the  study  of  literature 
for  individualistic  ends,  leads  to  confusion  in  the  study 
of  'English'  in  the  average  secondary  school,"  says 
Professor  Inglis.  "The  teacher  either  fails  to  analyze 
the  special  values  to  be  emphasized  in  the  particular 
phase  of  work  involved,  or  attempts  to  meet  too  many 
aims  and  to  develop  too  many  values  at  the  same 
time."^ 

Dr.  Snedden,  in  "A  Letter  to  a  High-School  Teacher 
of  English"  published  in  The  English  Leaflet,  Novem- 
ber, 1914,  deplores  the  fact  that  "under  the  head  of 
English  we  seem  now  to  include  two  secondary-school 
J  subjects  of  essentially  different  character  and  having 
unlike  aims — namely,  formal  English,  and  English 
literature.  One  result  of  this  merging  of  two  different 
subjects  is  that  the  means  and  methods  of  teaching 
one  tend  to  deflect  and  neutralize  those  appropriate 
to  the  other.  So  evident  has  this  become  to  me  that 
were  I  responsible  for  the  administration  of  a  higfi 
school  at  the  present  time,  I  believe  my  first  step 
would  be  to  place  the  teaching  of  literature  on  the 
one  hand,  and  on  the  other  all  that  pertains  to  English 
expression,  under  charge  of  different  teachers,  who 
would  probably  be  quite  unlike  each  other  in  tempera- 
ment and  interests.    I  should  take  this  action  in  the 

1,  Principles  of  Secondary  Education^  p.  445, 


24  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

expectation  that  teach  of  these  teachers  would  then 
develop  methods  appropriate  to  his  subject,  and  that 
the  teaching  of  each  subject  would  as  a  result  have 
a  fairer  opportunity  for  improvement  than  is  now 
possible.  I  strongly  believe  that  as  a  rule  the  same 
person  cannot  teach  English  expression  on  the  one 
hand,  and  literature  on  the  other,  with  satisfactory  re- 
sults, because,  from  my  point  of  view,  English  expres- 
sion and  English  literature  for  their  effective  teaching 
require  methods  of  treatment,  spirit  of  approach,  and 
utilization  of  means  which  are  fundamentally  unlike, 
and  even  largely  incompatible  with  each  other." 

Professor  J.  Rose  Colby's  stand  on  the  subject  is 
shown  by  the  title  of  her  paper  published  in  the 
Bulletin  of  the  Illinois  A.  T.  E.,  IMarch  15,  1916.  It 
reads:  "Shall  the  Courses  in  Composition  and  Litera- 
ture Be  Divided?    Yes." 

The  course  of  study  suggested  in  The  Reorganiza- 
tion Bulletin  for  high-school  English  by  the  joint 
committee  of  the  N.  E.  A.  and  N.  C.  T.  E.  assumes 
that  the  study  will  be  divided.  The  reasons  for  sep- 
aration are  summarized  on  page  129:  (1)  "Separation 
leads  to  the  proper  emphasis  upon  oral  and  written 
composition  based  on  topics  drawn  from  the  personal 
life  and  observation  of  the  pupils.  (2)  It  obviates  the 
difficulty  of  doing  justice  to  the  hard  worker  who  is  not 
brilliant  in  literature  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  careless 
and  dilatory  but  quick-witted  reader  of  literature  on 
the  other.  (3)  It  makes  possible  more  appropriate 
aims  and  methods  in  the  treatment  of  what  are  essen- 
tially different  types  pf  work.  It  prevents  confusion  of 
aims.    The  serious  grind  which  is  necessary  for  the 


PRELIMINARIES  25 

mastery  of  the  fundamentals  of  grammar  and  compo- 
sition is  deadly  when  applied  to  the  study  of  literature, 
whose  ultimate  purpose  must  be,  the  establishment  of 
ideals  of  life,  good  methods  of  reading,  and  the  habit 
of  turning  to  books  for  the  proper  enjoyment  of  leisure 
hours.  Finally,  (4)  it  makes  possible  cooperation  on 
the  part  of  all  departments  from  the  fact  that  the 
teacher  of  mathematics  and  the  teacher  of  science  will 
readily  assist  in  establishing  habits  of  careful  and  ac- 
curate expression,  but  can  hardly  be  expected  to  sup- 
port, except  through  general  attitude,  the  teaching  of 
poetry  and  fiction." 

The  separation  of  the  course  in  English  is  surely  the 
part  of  wisdom,  but  Dr.  Snedden's  contention  that  the 
teacher  of  composition  should  be  a  teacher  of  compo- 
sition only,  never  a  teacher  of  literature,  is  open  to 
question. 

Let  the  course  in  composition  be  a  course  in  the  art 
of  expression;  the  course  in  literature,  a  course  in  the 
art  of  appreciation  and  of  intelligent  reading.  Do  not 
misunderstand.  It  is  by  no  means  intended  that  the 
composition  course  should  make  no  use  of  li4:erature. 
On  the  contrary,  literary  models  should  be  freely  used, 
hut  they  should  not  he  the  ones  studied  in  the  literature 
class.  Nor  is  it  meant  that  the  teacher  of  composition 
shall  be  deluged  with  papers.  By  far  the  greater 
amount  of  time  and  attention  should  be  paid  to  oral 
expression.  A  composition  course  can  be  made  one  of 
the  most  vital,  as  it  is  one  of  the  most  profitable, 
courses  in  the  curriculum. 

Nor  is  it  proposed,  on  the  other  hand,  that  the  course 
in  literature  shall  neglect  the  formal  side  of  the  work. 


26  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

In  such  a  class  attention  must  constantly  be  given  to 
expression  both  oral  and  written.  The  pupil  is  to 
apply  day  by  day  the  principles  of  good  usage  which 
he  has  learned  in  his  composition  course.  But  the 
main  effort  is  to  be  expended  in  reading  and  inter- 
preting thoughts  of  great  writers.  And  daily  com- 
munion with  what  is  best  in  our  literature  can  but 
have  an  influence,  unconscious  though  it  be,  on  the 
pupil's  own  thought  and  his  expression  of  that 
thought. 

FOR  FURTHER  THOUGHT 

1.  Show  how  separatin^^  the  study  of  Ensrlish  into  the  study  of 
composition  and  the  study  of  literature  will  aid  in  getting  co- 
operation of  teachers  of  other  departments. 

2.  Discuss  the  wisdom  or  un\visdom  of  having  one  teacher 
teach   composition  only  and  another  literature  only. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Inglis,  Alexander.    Principles  of  Secondary  Education,  p.  445. 
Miller,  E.  L.     Separating  Composition  from  Literature. 
Snedden,  D.     Problems  in  Secondary  Education,   Chapter  XV. 
Ward,  C.  H.     What  Is  English?  p.  27. 
The  English  Journal: 

McComb,  E.  K.     Vol.  VI,  p.  69,  February,  1917. 

Struble,  J.  R.  "Round  Table,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  473,  September, 
1917. 
Beorganization  of  English  in  Secondary  Schools,  pp.   128-130, 

Bulletin  1917.    No.  2,  Bureau  of  Education. 
Bulletin  of  Illinois  A.  T.  E. : 

Colby,   J.   Rose.     "Shall   the   Courses  in   Composition   and 
Literature  Be  Divided?   Yes,"  March  35,  1916. 


THE  PROBLEM  OF  THE  START 

It  is  vital  to  the  entire  course  to  establish  the  right 
understanding  at  the  outset  between  the  pupil  and  the 


PRELIMINARIES  27 

teacher.  This  matter  of  English  composition  in  the 
junior  high  school  should  be  looked  upon  as  a  new 
adventure  upon  which  the  pupils  and  the  teacher  are 
to  embark  together.  Lead  the  class  to  believe  that 
there  is  to  be  good  sport  all  the  way,  and  there  will  be. 
The  course  is  to  be  a  course  in  the  learning  of  how  to 
talk  and  write  rather  than  in  the  teaching  of  English. 
The  factors  in  the  problem  are  the  teacher,  the  pupils, 
and  the  subject.  The  work  is  to  be  cooperative  work 
in  which  each  shares  responsibility.  Two  of  the  factors 
are  dynamic,  the  teacher  and  the  pupil.  They  are  to 
play  together  upon  the  third — the  subject,  and  this 
will  constitute  the  process  of  learning,  which  under 
this  method  will  be  a  pleasant  and  a  profitable  ex- 
perience. 

Getting  started  right  makes  going  on  easy.  It  is 
of  course  essential  that  the  teacher  discover  early  in 
the  game  just  what  the  pupils  bring  with  them.  For 
he  must  take  the  pupil  where  he  finds  him,  assuming 
nothing,  regretting  nothing. 

A  series  of  "don'ts"  may  be  worth  noticing  at  the 
outset: 

1.  Don't  assume  that  the  pupil  knows  much  gram- 

mar— or  anything  else. 

2.  Don't  chide  the  pupil  for  all  those  things  that 

he  ought  to  have  known  before  he  stepped 
upon  the  junior  high-school  threshold. 

3.  Don't  scare  the  pupils  into  a  state  of  non- 

response  by  a  lecture  on  what  they  are  ex- 
pected to  do. 
Hence  the  following  list  of  things  to  do  at  the  start 
may  be  suggestive ; 


28  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

1.  Make  the  children  feel  at  home  in  their  new 

environment. 

2.  Start  with  something  new.     Give  the  pupils 

something  to  do  that  is  different,  if  possible, 
from  what  they  have  done  before. 

3.  Start  with  the  pupil  where  you  find  him.  Throw 

away  theories  and  face  facts.  The  teacher 
should  be  familiar  with  the  course  in  English 
in  the  grades  below  the  junior  high  school. 
He  should  know  what  the  aims  and  probable 
attainment  of  the  course  are.  He  should  test 
for  that  attainment.  It  will  require  a  certain 
amount  of  camouflage  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher  to  make  the  discovery  of  what  the 
pupil  brings  with  him  and  at  the  same  time 
to  hold  the  interest  of  the  class.  Perhaps  the 
next  two  suggestions  may  be  helpful  on  this 
point. 

4.  Introduce  the  club  idea.     Tell  the  pupils  the 

composition  class  is  to  be  an  English  club. 
The  purpose  of  tiie  club  will  be  to  learn  how 
to  use  the  English  language  effectively  in 
speech  and  in  .writing.    Each  member  of  the 
club  is  to  try  his  best  to  entertain  and  to  help 
the  other  members. 
Ask  each  club  member,  for  instance,  to  bring  into 
the  club  a  short  paragraph  about  some  personal  ex- 
perience of  the  vacation  time  written  to  interest  or 
entertain  the  other  members  of  the  club.    It  is  to  be 
written  for  the  club,  to  be  read  to  the  club.    The  pupil 
will  thus  have  in  mind  his  audience  when  preparing 
his  work. 


PRELIMINARIES  29 

On  the  following  day,  the  first  meeting  of  the  club, 
the  teacher  will  preside.  He  will  call  for  the  reading 
of  paragraphs.     Pupils  will  step  forward  and  read. 

The  class,  under  guidance  of  the  teacher,  will  l;sten 
and  comment.  The  comments  will  start  with  favor- 
able criticisms.  These  must  be  definite — not  merely, 
"It  was  good,"  "I  liked  it,"  etc.  The  pupil  must  learn 
from  the  start  to  find  out  why  "it  was  good"  or  why 
he  "liked  it." 

Then  pupils  may  prepare  oral  or  written  paragraphs 
based  in  other  ways  on  their  experience.  They  may 
tell  about  things  they  have  done  or  made.  The  teacher, 
as  a  member  of  the  club,  should  share  responsibility 
with  the  other  members  by  giving  of  his  own  ex- 
perience. He  might  well  be  one  of  the  first  to  enter- 
tain the  club. 

5.  Socialize  the  class.  The  socialized  class  means 
the  class  in  which  there  is  established  within 
the  group  a  real  consciousness  of  kind;  the 
children  talk  to  an  audience  of  their  own 
kind ;  they  are  judged  by  their  peers ;  the  work 
is  cooperative  and  democratic;  the  teacher 
is  one  of  the  group,  yet  always  the  leader, 
the  director  of  activities,  pointing  the  pupils 
ever  forward.  He  is  the  power  behind  the 
throne,  though  the  throne  is  sometimes  but 
a  pupil's  desk.  For  in  the  socialized  class- 
room one  often  finds  a  pupil  presiding,  calling 
on  readers  and  volunteers  for  comments. 
But  under  this  new  classroom  procedure  the  teacher 
must  ever  be  on  his  guard  lest  liberty  pass  over  into 
license.     The  fear  of  crushing  buoyancy  and  spon- 


30  ENGLISH    PROBLEMS 

taneity  may  cause  the  teacher  to  refrain  from  inter- 
ference at  the  psychological  moment.  He  may  thus 
miss  his  opportunity  to  point  the  way  and  so  fail  in 
his  mission.  For  first,  last,  and  all  the  time  the  teacher 
must  be  the  leader  of  the  group,  guiding,  directing, 
controlling,  though  the  process  be  camouflaged  with 
the  most  consummate  art. 

There  is  also  the  danger  in  this,  as  in  any  other 
classroom  procedure,  that  the  method,  with  pupils 
presiding  and  putting  questions  to  their  fellows,  may 
become  stereotyped.  Hence  the  teacher  must  be  ever 
alert,  ready  for  a  flank  move  or  a  change  of  front. 
Real  socialization  will  make  teaching  more  vital  and 
dynamic  than  it  has  ever  been.  But  a  formalized 
shadow  of  the  thing  will  defeat  the  purpose  for  which 
it  was  called  into  being. 

The  socialized  class  is  dynamic.  Every  person  in 
the  room  is  a  participant  in  all  the  activities  that  are 
going  on.  And  the  teacher  is  always  at  the  helm  to 
direct  the  ^vork,  for  we  must  never  lose  sight  of  the 
fact  that  it  is  our  business  to  teach,  to  lead  the  pupils 
onward  and  upward  toward  our  goal.  Some  progress  in 
the  mastery  of  English  should  be  made  each  day.  The 
teacher  is  still  the  essential  factor  in  the  problem  of 
teaching.  He  is  not  eliminated  yet,  though  some 
would  say  so.  In  conducting  the  socialized  recitation, 
we  must  be  ever  alert  lest  we  risk  the  criticism  of  Mr. 
Stratton  in  The  Illinois  Bulletin  for  March,  1919.  He 
says:  "It  may  also  be  hinted  that  there  is  a  pleasant 
system  of  innocuous  education  into  which  so-called 
speech  training  easily  fits.  But  for  that  anomalous  kind 
of  class,  nttle  more  than  a  *talk-fest' — whether  it  be 


PRELIMINARIES  31 

designated  'self-expression'  or  'socialized  recitation,'  or 
'project' — no  teacher  is  really  necessary." 

A  really  socialized  class  will  take  a  group  pride  in 
achieving  results  and  in  living  up  to  standards  set. 
Through  this  group  pride  we  can  work  for  the  elimin- 
ation of  errors  in  usage,  in  spelling,  in  oral  form,  in 
reading  aloud  or  what  not.  In  some  graphic  way 
the  record  of  the  group  may  be  kept  to  show  progress 
in  learning  to  control  errors.  Charts  can  be  made 
by  pupils,  or  a  large  class  chart  by  a  member  of  the 
class  which  will  show  from  week  to  week  the  status 
of  the  section  in  regard  to  certain  prevailing  faults. 
Group  may  be  compared  with  group.  Publicity  and 
ambition  are  powerful  spurs  to  accomplishing  ends. 
For  instance,  graphic  statements  of  this  kind  might  be 
made  as  to  the  use  of  "and"  in  oral  reports,  as  to 
certain  types  of  grammatical  errors — lack  of  agree- 
ment between  subject  and  predicate ;  for  example  see 
the  article,  "Charting  Errors,"  in  The  English  Journal 
for  April,  1919,  by  Margaret  Bell  Merrill. 

An  interesting  study  of  the  socialized  vs.  the 
academic  method  was  published  in  The  School  Review 
for  February,  1919.  Mr.  C.  J.  Thompson  here  re- 
ports that  pupils  in  the  socialized  class  progress 
faster  and  learn  to  eliminate  mechanical  errors  more 
rapidly  than  those  academically  trained. 

Very  soon  the  pupils  must  take  stock  of  what  they 
know  in  the  way  of  correct  usage.  All  the  points  they 
have  learned  should  be  listed.  For  this  purpose  of 
stock-taking  the  pupil  should  provide  himself  with  a 
notebook  which  he  may  call  his  "stock-book."  And 
he  must  be  given  to  understand  that  he  is  to  be  held 


32  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

responsible  from   that   moment   on,    throughout   his 
course,  for  correct  usage  in  each  particular  listed. 

He  should  also  make  a  record  of  his  weaknesses,  and 
he  should  consult  this  list  of  what  not  to  use  every 
time  he  prepares  an  English  assignment,  either  oral 
or  written.  He  should  work  for  elimination  of  faults 
from  the  very  beginning. 

Both  the  stock-book  and  the  personal  record  of 
weaknesses  should  be  kept  by  every  pupil  throughout 
the  course. 

The  pupil  should  always  be  held  responsible  for 
what  he  has  been  taught.  Hence,  the  teacher  should 
never  correct  errors  which  the  pupil,  according  to  his 
own  statement  recorded  in  his  stock-book,  should  not 
have  made. 

Whether  or  not  the  course  in  English  composition 
is  to  be  considered  a  bore  by  the  pupil  depends  largely 
on  the  start.  ''It  is,  after  all,"  says  Mr.  Cunningham, 
"a  question  of  simple  psychology.  If  the  initial  steps 
of  the  pupil's  work  in  English  are  surrounded  with 
associations  of  pleasure  and  success,  a  powerful 
momentum  is  thereby  set  up  which  will  bid  fair  to 
carry  him  over  the  rougher  places.''^ 

The  suggestions  for  the  start  in  the  composition  class 
apply  also  to  beginning  the  work  in  the  literature  class. 

The  chief  caution  at  the  start  of  literature  teaching 
is  that  the  book  selected  for  the  introduction  to  junior 
high-school  English  should  be  of  vital  interest  to  all. 
The  most  universally  interesting  type  to  the  pupils  of 
this  age  is  the  short  story.  It  is  more  easily  handled 
than  the  longer  tale.     Hence  it  is  strongly  advised 

1.  The  English  Leaflet,  Februarj',  1916,  p.  4. 


PRELIMINARIES  33 

that  the  course  should  open  with  a  good,  live  short 
story  of  the  0.  Henry  or  Kipling  or  Richard  Harding 
Davis  type.  Other  suggestions  about  treating  this  type 
are  given  under  the  caption,  "The  Teaching  of  Litera- 
ture," page  117.' 

FOR  FURTHER  THOUGHT 

1.  Show  how  the  junior  high  school  will  help  to  bridge  the 
chasm  now  existing  between  the  gTades  and  the  high  school. 

2.  Give  reasons  for  and  against  an  English  course  which  starts 
in  the  primary  grades  and  ends  with  the  last  year  of  high  school. 

3.  List  the  essentials  in  (a)  English  grammar  and  (b)  English 
and  American  literature  that  pupils  should  know  at  the  end  of 
the  ninth  year. 

4.  Plan  (1)  a  composition  course,  (2)  a  grammar  course,  and 
(3)  a  reading  course  for  the  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth  years  as  a 
unit  of  the  English  course. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Chubb,  P.     The  Teaching  of  English,  Chap.  XIV. 

Elson  and  Keck.    Junior  High  School  Literature  (Three  books). 

The  Reorganization  Bulletin^  pp.  123-128. 

The  English  Journal: 

Foerster,  Norman.     "An  Idea  Course  for  Freshmen,"  Sep- 
tember, 1916. 
Hill,  Murray  G.     "Another  Word  about  Freshman  English," 

April  (R.  T.),  1917. 
Leavitt,  Charlotte  M.     "A  Question  of  Preparedness,"  No- 
vember, 1917. 
Manchester,  F.  A.     "Freshman  English  Once  More,  I,"  May, 

1917. 
Manchester,   F.    A.     "Freshman   English   Once  More,   11," 
June,  1917. 
The  English  Leaflet: 

Warner,    Francis    Lester.    "The    Emergency    Assignment," 
October,  1917. 

1.  Many  suitable  stories  for  use  in  the  Junior  high-school  literature 
class  are  contained  in  the  series,  Junior  High  School  Literature,  by 
Elson  and  Keck,  published  by  Scott,  Foresman   and  Company. 


34  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

THE    PROBLEM    OF    THE    ASSIGNMENT 

Supervised  Study 

The  problem  of  the  assignment  is  really  the  problem 
of  supervised  study.  Knowing  how  to  study  is  the  con- 
dition which  determines,  perhaps,  more  than  any  other 
factor  what  the  high-school  course  will  mean  to  the 
pupil.  The  prerequisite  of  the  course  in  English  com- 
position is  that  the  pupil  shall  know  how  to  prepare 
his  lesson  with  the  minimum  expenditure  of  vital 
force.  Hence  the  need  of  teaching  the  pupil  how  to 
study — a  need  which  is  best  met  by  the  introduction 
of  supervised  study. 

What  is  the  true  aim  of  supervised  study?  It  is 
not  merely  to  help  pupils  to  prepare  lessons.  By  no 
means  is  it  this.  Its  function  is  rather  to  point  the 
way,  to  create  a  habit,  to  show  the  pupil  how  to  study 
alone,  to  make  him  independent,  not  dependent.  This 
last  danger  of  making  the  pupil  lean  too  much  on 
others  should,  of  course,  be  realized,  realized  that  it 
may  be  avoided.  Study,  scientifically  directed  or  super- 
vised, will  tend  to  strengthen  the  pupil ;  will  develop  a 
sense  of  responsibility;  in  a  word  will  make  the  pupil 
grow  day  by  day  in  the  power  that  will  finally  eman- 
cipate him.  It  is  suggested  that  a  part  of  every  class 
period  in  all  years  be  devoted,  first,  to  a  careful  assign- 
ment of  work  for  preparation,  and  then  to  an  illustra- 
tion of  how  to  prepare  the  assignment.  Studying  with 
the  pupils  in  the  years  of  junior  high-school  work  will 
bring  far  better  results  and  develop  far  more  power 
than  merely  hearing  the  recitation  can  ever  do.    Under 


PRELIMINARIES  35 

the  teacher's  guidance  the  pupil  is  taught  how  to  ask 
and  how  to  answer  questions  about  the  work. 

First  of  all  the  pupil  should  learn  how  to  use  a  book. 
He  should  understand  the  make-up  of  a  book ;  the  title 
page,  the  table  of  contents,  the  index.  Such  questions 
as  the  following  may  be  put  to  the  class.  What  does 
each  one  of  these  parts  give?  Why  should  you  know 
the  exact  title  of  the  hook  you  are  studying?  Why 
should  you  know  the  name  of  the  publisher?  What 
does  the  table  of  contents  tell  you  about  the  book? 
What  is  the  purpose  of  an  index? 

Let  pupils  learn  the  exact  titles  of  the  books  they 
are  using  in  school  in  all  their  classes.  Never  be  satis- 
fied with  an  approximation.  Accuracy  must  be  in- 
sisted on.  From  the  very  first  require  the  pupil  to 
cite,  exactly,  authorities  whom  he  quotes  in  his  special 
topic  work.  Then,  in  the  course  of  time  in  answer 
to  the  question,  "Where  did  you  read  this  or  that?" 
the  familiar  reply,  "I  don't  know  the  name  of  the 
writer,  but  it  was  a  blue  book,  not  very  thick,"  will 
be  heard  no  more. 

Let  the  teacher  talk  the  lesson  over  with  the  class. 
Let  him  read  aloud  a  paragraph  in  the  assignment. 
The  pupils  may  give  it  a  title.  What  is  it  all  about? 
What  question  has  the  author  answered?  What  ques- 
tion do  you  want  to  ask  about  it?  Here  is  a  good 
chance  for  the  pupil  to  learn  how  to  ask  a  question. 
The  teacher  must  insist  on  accuracy  and  clearness. 
Pupils  will  acquire  the  art  if  slouchiness  in  phrasing 
questions  is  not  countenanced,  if  only  intelligent  ques- 
tions are  held  worthy  of  reply. 


36  ENGLISH    PROBLEMS 

The  plan  of  the  indeterminate  assignment  as  it  is 
operating  in  the  Wisconsin  scheme  is  interesting.  The 
assignment  is  not  limited,  is  not  fixed,  but  is  by  no 
means  indefinite  or  vague.  Pupils  know  where  they 
are  to  start  and  how  they  are  to  proceed.  They  get 
this  knowledge  from  the  careful  supervision  of  their 
study.  But  they  may  go  as  far  as  they  wish  to  go. 
The  boundary  of  tomorrow  is  never  set.  Thus  no  limit 
is  fixed  to  the  pupil's  accomplishment;  no  check  is 
put  on  the  efforts  of  any  individual  in  the  class.  Under 
the  eye  of  the  teacher  the  pupils  start  work  in  class  to 
be  continued  at  home,  the  amount  done  being  deter- 
mined by  the  power  of  each  individual.  A  report  is 
made  th^  next  day  by  each  child.  Every  member  of 
the  group  knows  how  much  every  other  member  of 
the  group  is  doing.  Publicity  is  a  great  incentive  to 
ambition.  This  method  induces  each  child  to  develop 
to  the  full  his  native  ability. 


FOR  FURTHER  THOUGHT 

1.  Discuss  the  value  of  spending  part  of  every  class  period  in 
studying  with  the  pupils. 

2.  Discuss  the  importance  of  insisting  on  accuracy  in  question 
and  answer. 

3.  Compare  the  relative  value   of   a   study  period  with   the 
teacher  and  a  formal  recitation  period. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Bagley,  W.  C.     The  Educative  Process,  Chap.  XXI. 

Colvin,  S.  S.     An  Introduction  to  High-School  Teaching,  Chap. 

xvm. 


PRELIMINARIES  37 

BIBLIOGRAPHY  (Continued) 

Earhart,  L.  B.     Teaching  Children  to  Study,  Chap.  VII. 
Hall-Quest,  A.  L.     Supervised  Study,  "Literature,"  Chap.  XV; 

"Composition,"  Chap.  IX. 
Sandwick,  Richard  L.     How  to  Study  and  What  to  Study,  pp. 

97-109. 
The  Reorganization  Bulletin,  p.  72. 
The  English  Leaflet:  \ 

Holland,  Dorothy.     "Supervised  Study,"  April,  1919. 
The  English  Journal: 

Morse,  Katherine.     "An  Experiment  in  Supervised  Study," 
June,  1919. 
The  School  Review: 

Burr,  A.  W.     "Directed  Study,"  February,  1919. 

V 


THE  PROBLEM  OF  CORRELATION  . 

"The  English  of  the  entire  school  is  the  business  of 
the  entire  school,"  declares  Mr.  Thomas  in  The 
Teaching  of  E7iglish.  And  Mr.  Hosic  says,  "All 
teachers  of  all  subjects  should  insist  on  clear  expres- 
sion of  thought."  Mr.  Miller,  Principal  of  the  North 
Western  High  School  of  Detroit,  goes  so  far  as  to  main- 
tain that  only  a  teacher  of  English  should  hold  the 
position  of  principal  of  a  high  school.  Then,  he  says, 
we  may  be  sure  of  the  cooperation  of  the  other  depart- 
ments in  upholding  good  usage. 

Every  teacher  of  English  in  every  school  in  our 
country  would  be  glad  to  make  of  these  words  a 
mighty  chorus.  The  business  of  the  school  is,  indeed, 
to  establish  a  standard  in  essential  matters  of  English 
usage,  and  having  established  this  standard,  to  see  to 


38  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

it  that  the  pupil  adopts  it  and  uses  it  in  his  school 
life,  in  every  class,  in  every  social  hour  together,  in 
all  extra  school  activities.  The  habit  of  correct  speech 
— not  stiff  or  formal — but  correct  as  to  essentials, 
should  be  formed  during  the  high-school  course.  It 
can  be  if  there  is  active,  interested  cooperation  among 
all  concerned.  The  pupil  first  of  all  must  be  a  dynamic 
not  a  passive  agent.  The  teachers  of  other  subjects 
and  the  principal  of  the  school  must  work  together 
with  the  English  teacher  for  the  establishment  of  right 
standards  of  speech  and  written  expression. 

Convince  the  student  that  correct  usage  has  a  market 
value  in  his  other  studies  and  he  will  really  try  to 
form  the  habit  of  speaking  correctly.  For  this  habit 
will  be  formed  only  if  the  pupil  is  expected  to  express 
himself  clearly  and  correctly  in  all  subjects  and  by  all 
teachers.  Correct  English  is  not  a  thing  apart,  for  the 
English  period  merely;  it  should  be  a  part,  an  essential 
part,  of  all  the  work  in  school.  Until  the  pupil  comes 
to  realize  the  practical  importance  of  correct  expres- 
sion he  will  be  careless.  But  when  he  is  required  to 
watch  his  speech  not  one  period  during  the  day  but 
five;  when  he  finds  that  his  work  is  not  acceptable 
in  any  subject  unless  expressed  in  good  language; 
when,  in  a  word,  he  finds  that  correct  usage  has  a 
market  value  in  all  his  school  work,  then  he  will  set 
about  acquiring  the  habit  of  using  good  English.  Cor- 
rect speech,  not  every  now  and  then  but  every  time 
that  the  pupil  opens  his  lips  while  within  the  four 
walls  of  the  schoolhouse,  must  be  insisted  upon  if  we 
would  help  the  pupil  to  form  the  habit  of  correct 
usage. 


PRELIMINARIES  39 

The  following  minimum  requirements  for  English 
form  are  being  put  into  practice  in  some  high  schools. 

Minimum  Requirements  for  English  Form  in  All 

Recitations 
OBAL 

1.  Position 

Stand  properly. 

2.  Voice 

Enunciate  clearly.  / 

Pronounce  correctly. 

(Say — going,  not  goin*;  and,  not  an*;  kept,  not 
kep\) 

3.  Language 

Speak  gTammatically. 

(Say — he  doesn't,  not  he  don't;  every  one  of  the 

pupils  is  here,  not  are  here.) 
(Say — John,   brother   of   Richard,   ascended   the 
throne,    not    John,    etc.,    he    ascended    the 
throne.)  ^ 

Avoid  the  and,  so,  and  why  habits. 

4.  Thought 

Answer  directly. 
AnsAver  completely. 

WBITTEN 

1.  Make   papers  neat.     Avoid  blots,   scratches,  soiling,  or 

rumpling. 

2.  Write  legibly. 

3.  Spell  correctly. 

4.  Write  in  sentences — not  in 

a.  Fragments. 

b.  Statements  unconnected  except  by  the  comma  (the 

Central    High    School    is    large,    it    has    nearly 
twenty-five  hundred  pupils). 

(For  further  requirements  as  to  language  and  thought,  see 
directions  for  oral  work  above.) 


40  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

Teachers  in  all  subjects  realize  how  little  power 
pupils  display  in  asking  and  in  answering  questions. 
How  many  pupils  ask  intelligent  questions?  How 
many  give  accurate  answers? 

Here  is  a  matter  in  which  all  teachers  are  agreed 
that  pupils  need  training.  Let  the  teachers  get  to- 
gether on  this  point.  Let  them  all  decide  to  work  for 
accuracy.  Let  them  demand  exact  answers  to  ques- 
tions. Let  them  not  be  satisfied  with  approximations. 
And  above  all  let  them  agree  to  make  the  pupil  stand 
on  his  own  feet.  Let  them  stop  supplementing  the 
pupiFs  work,  finishing  his  sentences,  and  repeating  his 
answer  in  better  form  to  the  class.  Hold  the  pupil 
responsible  to  the  class.  If  all  teachers  would  adopt  a 
uniform  procedure  in  this  matter  of  the  recitation,  the 
power  of  the  pupil  to  express  himself  accurately  and 
correctly  would  develop  rapidly.  And  the  burden  of 
the  teacher  grows  lighter  as  the  pupil's  power  in- 
creases. 

Make  this  matter  of  the  question  and  answer  the 
entering  wedge  for  the  earnest  cooperation  of  all  the 
departments  in  the  high  school.  By  working  with  the 
English  teacher,  the  teacher  of  other  subjects  will 
come  to  see  that,  after  all,  the  English  class  is  but  the 
work-shop  where  the  tools  that  are  to  be  manipulated 
in  the  work  of  every  other  subject  are  sharpened  for 
use.  What  the  English  teacher  wants  is  that  the 
teacher  of  the  other  subject  shall  not  allow  these  tools 
to  rust  but  shall  see  to  it  that  the  edge  is  kept  keen. 
An  understanding  is  all  that  is  needed  for  a  close, 
persistent,  effective  cooperation  in  the  work  of  all  the 
teachers  in  the  school. 


PRELIMINARIES  41 

FOR  FURTHER  THOUGHT 

1.  How  can  the  teacher  of  English  composition  make  the  work 
vital  to  the  teacher  of  science? 

2.  Suggest  ways  of  correlating  the  work  in  English  with  the 
work  in  history.    Give  definite  illustrations. 

3.  With  what  subject  in  the  curriculum  would  you  correlate  the 
study  of  Burns?  Burke's  Speech  on  Conciliation?  Huxley's 
Essays?  Illustrate  how  the  correlation  might  be  made  in  each 
case.    Mention  other  eases. 

4.  Discuss  the  cooperation  of  other  departments  as  an  aid  in 
the  teaching  of  composition. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Johnson,    H.    S.     The   Modern    High    School,    Chapters    XXV, 

XXVI. 
Thomas,  C.  S.   The  Teaching  of  English  in  the  Secondary  Schools, 

Chapter  VI. 
The  Beorganization  Bulletin,  pp.  130-139.    See  also  Bibliograpliy, 

p.  172. 
The  School  Beview: 

Hosic,  J.  F.  "Cooperation  in  Teaching  English,''  Vol.  21,  p. 
598. 


CHAPTER    TWO 


FUNDAMENTALS 


The  Problem  of  Grammar.     The  Problem  of  Punctuation.     The 
Problem  of  Spelling.     The  Problem  of  Vocabulary. 

THE  PROBLEM  OF  GRAMMAR 

Grammar  is  the  weak  spot  in  our  English  courses 
and  consequently  it  is  the  point  of  attack  by  critics. 
Our  method  of  teaching  English  grammar  in  the  grades 
is  the  crux  of  the  whole  matter.  If  we  could  spend 
the  time  that  is  now  used  or  rather  misused  in  trying 
to  explain  conflicting  statements  of  grammarians,  in 
hopelessly  attempting  to  harmonize  nomenclature — 
if  we  could  spend  this  time  in  teaching  the  essentials 
of  grammar  from  the  point  of  view  of  use,  our  pupil- 
product  would  be  far  better  than  it  is  today. 

The  course  of  study  in  the  grades  requires  the  teach- 
ing of  the  subject  of  grammar.  The  subject  is  touched 
upon  in  all  the  language  books  used  from  the  fifth 
grade  on.  Terms  and  definitions  denoting  the  same 
thing  change  from  year  to  year  and  from  text  to  text. 
If  the  variation  were  one  of  intensity  or  emphasis  all 
would  be  well.  But  what  shall  we  do  when  the  key- 
board itself  changes?  If  "a"  were  ''a"  all  the  way 
through  and  "b"  were  "b,"  well  and  good.  But  when 
"a"  becomes  "b"  in  one  year,  "c"  in  another,  and 
perhaps  "d"  later  on,  how  can  we  straighten  out  these 
things  in  the  child's  mind?  For  example:  In  the 
sentence,  John  has  a  top,  the  word  top  is  called  by  some 

43 


FUNDAMENTALS  43 

grammarians  an  object;  by  others  an  object  comple- 
ment. In  the  sentence,  John  is  a  good  boy,  the  word 
boy  is  varyingly  designated  as  attribute  complement, 
subject  complement,  predicate  noun,  and  predicate 
nominative.  And  in  the  sentence,  They  elected  John 
captain  of  the  team,  captain  is  called  objective  com- 
plement by  Buehler;  in  apposition  by  Kerl;  predicate 
object  under  indirect  object  by  Brubacher  and  Snyder; 
complementary  object  under  direct  object  by  Scott 
and  Buck;  factitive  object  by  Meikeljohn;  objective 
predicate  by  Ward.  The  pupils,  caught  in  this  maze 
of  terms,  fail  to  get  anywhere  in  the  subject.  Indeed^ 
the  study  of  grammar  per  se  in  the  grades  is  neither 
more  nor  less  than  an  economic  waste. 

Between  the  years  1906  and  1911  committees  rep- 
resenting the  most  famous  language  associations,  not 
only  in  America  but  in  England  and  France  as  well, 
worked  on  the  simplification  and  standardization  of 
the  terminology  of  the  grammar  of  English  and  of 
foreign  tongues.  Finally  in  July,  1911  a  joint  com- 
mittee was  appointed  by  the  N.  E.  A.,  the  Modern 
Language  Association,  and  the  American  Philological 
Association  to  standardize  the  terminology  of  the  gram- 
mar of  the  English  language.  And  our  hopes  were 
high.  But  the  report  given  out  in  1914  was  at 
best  a  compromise.  The  situation  was  improved 
slightly,  to  be  sure.  The  atmosphere  was  cleared 
somewhat.  But  the  terminology  was  not  simplified  to 
any  degree,  and  while  English  grammars  and  compo- 
sition books  issued  since  the  publication  of  the  report 
have  introduced,  at  least  in  a  footnote,  the  new 
terminology,  no  appreciable  relief  has  come.    A  course 


44  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

^  in  English  usage  would  be  far  better  in  our  elementary 
schools  than  a  course  in  formal  grammar.  Words, 
phrases,  and  clauses  should  be  taught  from  the  point  of 
view  of  usage,  as  they  function  in  the  expression  of 
thought.  It  is  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  part  each 
word  or  group  of  words  plays  in  the  expression  of  the 
thought  that  the  attack  should  be  made.  The  sentence 
is  the  unit  of  thought  at  the  beginning,  the  middle, 
and  the  end  of  grade-school  language  work.  And  with 
the  sentence  mastered,  how  easy  is  all  the  rest! 

The  problem  of  grammar  is  a  junior  high-school 
problem,  and  the  point  of  departure  in  all  three  years 
of  the  study  is  the  sentence.    The  sentence  is  the  basis 

yof  all  language  work.  If  the  sentence-sense  is  created 
and  made  a  part  of  the  pupil's  assets,  we  might  almost 
say  that  the  royal  road  to  English  teaching  is  dis- 
covered. For  out  of  the  sentence  grouped  with 
other  sentences  grows  the  paragraph,  and  out  of  the 
grouping  of  paragraphs,  the  theme,  the  story,  the 
book.  Develop  the  idea  of  service  in  teaching  the  parts 
of  the  sentence,  all  words  pulling  together  to  get  one 
thought  across.  And  then  convince  the  pupil  that 
word-groups,  the  phrase  and  the  clause,  serve  merely 
as  single  parts  of  speech  with  one  end,  one  aim,  one 
goal,  namely,  to  develop  the  sentence-thought.  Thus 
simplified,  the  sentence  idea  should  become  easy  of 
acquisition. 

The  essentials  of  grammar  should  be  taught  as  they 
are  needed.  And  only  those  points  in  grammar  which 
will  function  in  the  speech  of  the  pupils  should  be 
taught.  Fine  distinctions  between  gerund,  participle, 
verbal,   and   infinitive,   for   example,   should   not  be 


FUNDAMENTALS  45 

touched  upon.  Sentences  may  be  analyzed  for  thought, 
but  formal  diagramming,  while  having  perhaps  a  "puz- 
zle" interest  is,  generally  speaking,  a  waste  of  time. 

The  few  things  taught,  however,  should  become  the 
pupiFs  own.  He  should  be  held  responsible,  absolutely, 
for  these  essentials.  If  each  year  in  his  school  life 
the  pupil  could  appropriate  certain  fundamentals,  and 
the  next  year  could  start  with  these  as  an  apperceptive 
basis  for  new  points,  progress  would  be  steady  and 
consistent.  And  that  is  what  we  should  aim  for.  Let 
us  then  teach  fewer  points  in  grammar,  but  let  us 
teach  theni  thoroughly,  and  above  all  let  us  hold  the 
pupil  responsible  all  the  time.  The  grammar  of  usage 
is  the  grammar  to  give  our  children — not  only  in  the 
junior  but  also  in  the  senior  high  school. 

In  the  following  words  Mr.  Chubb  sums  up  the 
central  idea  in  grammar  preparation  of  the  student 
for  the  high  school.  "It  is,"  he  says,  "the  develop- 
ment of  the  sentence  as  a  thought  unit,  and  the  treat- 
ment of  words  and  the  machinery  of  written  expres- 
sion as  functional  elements  of  the  sentence.  New 
parts  of  speech,  new  sentence-forms,  and  new  devices 
are  considered  as  they  come  into  view  with  the  devel- 
opment of  mental  faculty  and  with  the  need  of  new 
symbols  and  modes  of  expression  to  keep  pace 
with  it."^ 

Roughly  speaking,  the  following  grammar  program 
is  suggested  for  the  junior  high  school: 

1.  Clinch  the  sentence-sense  through  approaching 
the  problem  of  grammar  from  the  point  of  view  of 

1.  The  Teaching  of  English,  p.  225, 


46  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

service,  words  and  word-groups  serving  only  to  help 
along  the  thought. 

2.  Teach  the  sentence  as  a  whole,  a  complete  unit 
though  of  varying  degrees  of  complexity. 

3.  Teach  the  sentence  injts  parts:  the  two  basic 
elements,  subject  and  predicate.  These  are  the  master 
parts;  all  other  parts  serve  them. 

4.  Teach  the  "other  parts":  single  words,  word- 
groups,  the  phrase  and  clause  used  as  single  words 
(parts  of  speech).  Teach  connectives  as  they  func- 
tion in  complex  and  compound  sentences. 

5.  Teach  laws  hi  service:  agreement  of  subject  noun 
or  pronoun  and  verb,  agreement  of  pronoun  and  ante- 
cedent. If  the  word  serves  the  noun  or  pronoun,  it 
partakes  of  the  nature  of  an  adjective  and  so  must 
take  the  adjective  form  (e.g.,  slow  not  slowly).  If 
it  serves  the  verb,  it  is  an  adverb  and  must  take  the 
adverbial  form.  To  be  of  immediate  service,  words 
should  be  placed  near  the  words  they  serve. 

6.  Teach  certain  usages:  noun  usage,  matters  of 
case;  verb  usage,  principal  parts  of  irregular  verbs; 
pronoun  usage,  inflection. 

Have  we  omitted  much?  Perhaps.  But  we  sin- 
cerely believe  that  the  cardinal  principle  of  all  teach- 
ing today  should  be  thoroughness — a  narrowing  of  the 
essential  requisites,  a  getting  down  te  fundamentals. 
And  there  are  many  with  us  in  this  belief.  After 
suggesting  some  such  scheme  for  grammar  work  in 
his  book.  What  Is  English?,  Mr.  Ward  says  (p.  93), 
"Does  it  sound  like  a  program  of  easy  incomplete- 
ness? It  would  be  quite  the  contrary.  For  it  is  harder 
to  be  thorough  in  a  few  fundamentals  than  te  hurry 


FUNDAMENTALS  47 

through  a  thousand  non-essentials;  more  complete  to 
know  all  of  something  than  to  know  only  a  little 
about  some  things."  And  he  insists  that  we  must 
always  ask  what  words  do  in  order  to  keep  before  us 
the  vision  of  better  sentences.  Let  the  grammar  slogan 
be  then,  "What  does  the  word  do  in  the  sentence?"  ^ 

FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  Give  a  resume  of  Mr.  Ward's  idea  of  essentials  in  grammar. 

2.  Work  out  the  grammar  program  for  the  junior  high  school. 

3.  Discuss  the  grammar  of  use  versus  the  grammar  of  classifi- 
cation for  the  high-school  student. 

4.  Show  how  the  idea  of  service  in  relation  to  words,  phrases, 
and  clauses  in  the  sentence  will  help  develop  the  sentence  sense. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 
Chubb,  P.     The  Teaching  of  English,  Chapter  XII,  pp.  204-232. 
Krapp,  Philip.    Modern  English,  Its  Growth  and  Present  Use. 
Leonard,    S.    A.     English   Composition   As   a   Social   Problem, 

Chapter  IV. 
Stewart,  C.  D.    Essays  on  the  Spot,  "The  Study  of  Grammar." 
Thomas,    C.    S.     The    Teaching    of   English   in    the    Secondary 

Schools,  Chapter  III. 
Ward,  C.  H.     What  Is  English?    Chapters  IV  and  V. 
The  English  Journal: 

Betz,  A.  and  Marshall,  E.     "Grammar  Based  on  Errors," 

September,  1916. 
Clay,   M.    E.     "Grammar   for   the    Grammarless"    (R.    T.), 

May,  1918. 
Cowan,  Harold  E.     "Suicide  English"    (R.  T.),  November, 

1917. 
Fairchild,    A.    R.    H.     "The   Verb    and    the   Adjective   in 

Poetry,"  May,  1916. 
Lasher,    George   S.     "Roast   Beef   Instead   of  Hash,"   De- 
cember, 1917. 
Leonard,  S.  A.     "Old  Purist  Junk,"  May,  1918. 
Park,   C.   W.     "A   Study  in   the   Teaching  of   the  Mothe. 

Tongue,"  May,  1916. 
Wilson,  Enuna  J.     "Shall  We  Abolish  Grammar?"  May, 
1917. 


48  ENGLISH    PROBLEMS 

THE  PROBLEM  OF  PUNCTUATION 

"Punctuation  is  not  a  matter  of  mechanical  correct- 
ness; it  is  an  art,"  says  Mr.  George  Summey  in  his 
Modern  Punctuation:  Its  Utilities  and  Conventions. 
How  many  teachers  of  English  agree  with  him?  It 
used  to  be  the  fashion  to  look  upon  the  comma  lightly, 
and  to  regard  the  erratic  appearances  of  the  period  in 
a  sheaf  of  composition  papers  with  a  kindly  tolerance. 
We  heard  a  great  deal  about  the  necessity  of  preserv- 
ing the  child's  spontaneity  in  expression,  about  the 
deadening  effect  of  too  much  mechanical  drill,  etc. 
That  day  is  gone  forever.  Punctuation  has  come  into 
its  own.  And  why  this  new  respect  for  a  subject  once 
thought  undeserving  of  serious  consideration?  Be- 
cause we  have  at  last  realized  how  essential  logical 
punctuation  is  to  clear  thinking,  accurate  expression, 
and  good  sentence  structure;  and  also  because  the 
business  world  and  the  college  will  no  longer  tolerate 
a  vague  and  inaccurate  use  of  English. 

Granted  that  teachers  of  English  in  general  are  alive 
to  the  importance  of  punctuation,  the  big  problem 
remains:  How  are  we  to  induce  our  pupils  to  punc- 
tuate? We  do  not  need  to  be  told  by  the  colleges  and 
the  world  at  large  that  they  are  sadly  deficient  in  this 
necessary  practice.  Three  reasons  for  this  deficiency 
immediately  present  themselves:  (1)  failure  to  realize 
the  importance  of  punctuation,  (2)  ignorance  of 
grammar  and  the  construction  of  sentences,  and  (3) 
insufficient  drill.  The  first  of  these  obstacles  is  the 
natural  result  of  the  practice  from  which  we  are  emerg- 
ing, of  neglecting  the  formal  side  of  composition  from 
fear  of  destroying  the  spirit.     If  we  have  underesti- 


FUNDAMENTALS  49 

mated  the  importance  of  the  subject,  logically  our 
pupils  have  underestimated  it  also.  They  have  felt 
that  punctuation  did  not  particularly  matter,  espe- 
cially if  a  composition  showed  a  lively  fancy  and  a 
telling  phrase  or  two.  Is  there  a  teacher  who  has  not 
been  confronted  with  the  question,  asked  in  tones  of 
pained  surprise,  ''What!  Was  this  paper  marked  down 
just  because  I  left  out  a  few  commas  and  periods?" 
That  pupil  has  not  grasped  the  fact  that  logical 
punctuation  means  clear  thinking.  We  shall  get  what- 
ever we  demand.  Indifference  will  vanish  when  we 
demand  from  pupils  accuracy  and  intelligence  in  fol- 
lowing current  usage  in  punctuation  as  well  as  in  the 
other  matters  of  expression.  A  distressing  ignorance 
of  such  fundamental  things  as  grammar  and  sentence 
structure  is  a  far  too  common  condition.  Pimc- 
tuation,  grammar,  and  sentence  structure  are  so 
bound  up  together  that  punctuation,  at  least,  should 
never  be  taught  separately,  or  as  a  thing  in  itself.  Mr. 
C.  H.  Ward,  who  has  written  with  refreshing  saneness 
on  the  subject,  says  that  the  teaching  of  punctuation 
must  begin  with  the  teaching  of  grammar.  Obviously, 
the  study  of  the  sentence  involves  the  study  of  the 
accompanying  rules  of  punctuation.  Indeed,  punctua- 
tion is  so  essential  a  part  of  the  sentence  that  it  can  be 
made  an  aid  to  better  sentence  construction.  How- 
ever, in  the  writer^s  opinion,  based  on  long  years  of 
struggle  with  this  problem,  it  is  the  third  item  in  the 
list  which  accounts  for  most  of  the  sins  against 
punctuation — insuflSjcient  drill.  We  have  been  too 
afraid  of  deadening  our  work.  We  have  needed  the 
time  for  the  one  thousand  other  things  which  the 


50  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

English  Department  must  attend  to!  We  have,  in 
short,  failed  to  establish  as  habits  the  application  of 
the  few  rules  of  punctuation  essential  to  clearness  and 
accuracy  of  expression.  This  is  the  key  to  the  solu- 
tion of  the  problem  of  inducing  our  pupils  to  punc- 
tuate. Give  them  the  right  point  of  view.  Stress 
the  importance  of  punctuation  as  a  means  of  clarifying 
thought.  Make  clear  the  fact  that  its  function  is  to 
separate  ideas  not  closely  connected,  and  to  show  the 
degree  of  relation  between  them.  Remember  the  in- 
terdependence of  punctuation,  grammar,  and  sentence 
structure.  Select  a  few  rules  for  practice  in  a  given 
period,  and  drill  upon  those  few  until  their  applica- 
tion becomes  automatic. 

Certain  minimum  standards  in  form  for  each  year 
should  be  agreed  upon,  and  those  principles  estab- 
lished as  habits.  The  Head  of  the  Massachusetts 
State  Normal  School,  John  J.  Mahoney,  gives  the  fol- 
lowing principles  to  be  mastered  by  the  end  of  the 
seventh  year: 

1.  End  punctuation:   period,  exclamation  point, 

and  interrogation  point. 

2.  The  comma  in  simple  direct  quotations. 

3.  The  comma  in  letter  headings. 

He  makes  one  addition  to  the  list  for  the  eighth 
year,  namely, 

4.  The  comma  after  an  adverbial  clause  coming 

before  the  subject. 
Sterling  Andrus  Leonard  gives  the  following  list: 

1.  End  punctuation. 

2.  The  comma  in  the  series. 


FUNDAMENTALS  51 

3.  The  comma  setting  off  grammatically   inde- 

pendent words  and  phrases. 

4.  The  comma  in  the  compound  sentence  with 

conjunction. 
However,  these  lists  can  be  only  suggestive.  The 
situation  that  confronts  the  teacher  of  a  group  of  ninth- 
grade  pupils  has  nothing  to  do  with  a  theoretical  list. 
It  will  be  found  usually  that  pupils  have  been  taught 
certain  rules  for  the  comma,  but  that  they  do  not 
apply  them.  An  examination  of  a  typical  set  of  com- 
positions will  reveal  the  usual  errors:  no  end  period, 
members  of  a  series  not  separated,  independent  clauses 
of  a  series  not  separated,  and  various  miscellaneous 
mistakes.  The  selection  of  the  rules  for  practice  will 
depend  on  the  needs  of  the  class,  according  to  the 
preparation  they  have  had.  Pupils  are  interested  in 
discovering  from  their  own  papers  what  they  most 
need  practice  on,  and  in  making  up  a  list  together 
for  drill.  Sometimes  this  list  may  be  amended  or  con- 
firmed by  an  examination  of  current  literature — maga- 
zine articles,  editorials,  short  stories,  etc. — to  discover 
the  three  or  four  rules  that  are  observed  most  fre- 
quently, and  that  are  therefore  most  useful  in  the  ex- 
pression of  thought.  Obviously,  care  must  be  taken  to 
suggest  for  examination  only  those  magazines  and 
newspapers  that  maintain  a  high  standard  of  English, 
and  to  limit  the  search  to  one  point,  the  comma,  as  that 
is  likely  to  need  attention  first.  The  greatest  hindrance 
to  success  is  the  temptation  to  try  to  establish  too 
many  rules  in  a  given  time.  Three  or  four  "punctua- 
tion habits"  clearly  and  firmly  fixed  in  a  year  would  be 
a  reasonable  accompHshment.     One  thing  is  fatal  to 


52  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

success — to  accept  anything  less  than  one  hundred  per 
cent  achievement.  The  trouble  is  that  we  have  been 
content  with  an  approximate  result.  Only  if  we  de- 
mand perfection  shall  we  get  it. 

One  of  the  most  helpful  devices  in  teaching  punctua- 
tion is  dictation.  The  value  lies  in  the  fact  that  the 
pupil  catches  the  words  in  their  natural  thought 
groups.  The  dictation  should  consist  of  complete,  in- 
teresting paragraphs,  not  isolated  or  detached  sen- 
tences. The  selection  should  not  be  too  long,  and  the 
words  and  ideas  should  be  within  the  pupils'  grasp. 
If  the  passages  are  chosen  from  books  and  articles  that 
appeal  to  the  class,  the  work  becomes  a  pleasure.  The 
writings  of  Kipling,  Ian  Hay,  Booth  Tarkington,  John 
Muir,  and  Dr.  Grenfell  furnish  excellent  material. 
Dictation  is  of  course  only  a  mechanical  device,  but  it 
is  useful  in  clinching  forms.  In  the  French  schools, 
where  the  children  are  taught  to  use  their  own  lan- 
guage with  real  skill  and  even  beauty,  dictation  is  con- 
sidered a  valuable  aid. 

The  relation  between,  oral  and  written  punctuation 
should  be  stressed.  This  is  sometimes  brought  out 
naturally  by  the  attempt  of  one  pupil  to  read  the  com- 
position of  another.  Failure  to  get  the  thought  is 
frequently  the  result  of  inadequate  punctuation,  and 
the  pupils  are  quick  to  see  this  fact.  Much  of  the  drill 
f^r  breaking  up  the  "and''  and  "so"  habits  and  estab- 
lishing the  end-of-the-sentence  habit  should  be  done 
orally,  and  the  commas  should  be  required  in  this  work 
as  well  as  the  periods. 

In  a  socialized  class — and  all  classes  are  socialized 
now-a-days — much  can  be  accomplished  by  pupil  cor- 


FUNDAMENTALS  53 

rection  of  written  work.  Attention  should  be  focused 
on  the  one  or  two  principles  under  drill,  however,  and 
not  diverted  to  other  matters.  If  it. is  the  comma-in- 
the-series  habit  that  the  class  is  attempting  to  estab- 
lish, let  them  look  only  for  the  occurrence  of  a  series 
of  words,  phrases,  or  clauses,  and  make  sure  of  the 
commas,  especially  of  the  one  before  the  "and.'*  Group 
competition  may  arouse  interest  at  the  moment  when 
the  drill  threatens  to  become  monotonous.  Graphs  for 
the  respective  groups  showing  their  progress  is  a 
stimulating  way  of  keeping  the  record. 

The  most  valuable  aid  of  all  is  the  cooperation  of 
the  teachers  of  other  subjects.  Their  own  work  is 
always  pressing,  but  if  the  requests  from  the  English 
Department  are  sufficiently  definite,  they  may  find  it 
possible  to  take  their  share  of  the  responsibility  for 
the  good  English  of  the  pupils.  Cards  should  be  sent 
to  the  other  teachers  of  a  class  stating  the  punctua- 
tion habits  the  class  is  trying  to  establish,  and  asking 
that  those  specific  points  receive  attention  in  their 
classrooms  also. 

Few  new  principles  should  be  given  in  the  ninth 
year.  The  rules  for  the  comma,  however,  should  now 
be  grouped  according  to  the  two  underlying  principles 
governing  its  use:  (1)  to  set  off,  as  in  the  case  of 
parenthetical  words,  participial  modifiers,  etc.;  and 
(2)  to  separate,  as  in  the  case  of  the  series,  appositives, 
etc.  This  is  the  time  to  teach  the  one  use  of  the  semi- 
colon which  is  necessary  at  this  stage  of  the  pupil's 
growth  in  sentence  structure — that  is,  to  separate 
statements  grammatically  independent  while  closely 
related  in  thought.    The  distinction  between  restric- 


54  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

tive  and  non-restrictive  modifiers  is  so  difficult  that  it 
will  not  be  mastered  in  the  ninth  year,  but  it  should 
be  begun  there,  and  continued  and  developed  through 
the  next  two  years.  A  helpful  device  is  to  teach  that 
certain  conjunctions  invariably  add  non-restrictive 
clauses:  though,  although,  so,  so  that,  and  so;  for,  as, 
and  since  when  showing  a  reason.  The  committee  of 
teachers  of  English  appointed  by  the  National  Educa- 
tion Association  to  report  on  the  Economy  of  Time  ad- 
vises teaching  the  distinction  between  conjunctions 
proper  (as,  for,  but,  etc.)  which  require  commas,  and 
independent  adverbs  (then,  nevertheless,  etc.)  which 
require  semicolons  or  periods. 

In  the  tenth  year  the  point  on  which  most  practice 
is  needed  will  probably  be  the  matter  of  restrictive  and 
non-restrictive  elements.  The  use  of  the  semicolon 
presents  little  difficulty  if  the  sentence  sense  has  been 
developed,  but,  of  course,  practice  is  necessary  before  it 
becomes  instinctive.  There  will  be  a  few  troublesome 
comma  rules,  or  rules  which  could  not  be  attended  to 
in  the  ninth  year.  At  this  time  the  composition  work 
may  demand  a  knowledge  of  the  colon  in  the  only 
modern  use  in  the  sentence  remaining — to  introduce. 
To  fix  firmly  these  four  or  five  matters  is  enough  for 
one  year. 

If  the  aims  of  the  ninth  and  tenth  years  are  actually 
accomplished,  there  should  be  less  necessity  for  drill  in 
the  last  two  years  of  the  high  school.  It  should  be 
possible  at  this  time  to  present  a  broader  idea  of  the 
function  of  punctuation.  The  possibilities  latent  in 
the  semicolon  and  the  comma  in  giving  another  turn 
to  the  thought — a  delicate  shade  of  emphasis — are 


FUNDAMENTALS  55 

not  beyond  the  grasp  of  an  intelligent  class.  Neither 
is  the  fact  that  certain  questions  of  pointing  in  the  sen- 
tence can  be  settled  only  with  reference  to  the  meaning 
and  movement  of  the  paragraph.  A  study  of  the  finer 
shades  of  the  art  of  punctuation  obviously  belongs  to 
college,  not  to  the  high  school,  but  as  much  of  the 
theory  can  be  given  as  the  needs  and  capacity  of  the 
class  demand. 

Whatever  principles  are  taught,  we  should  keep  in 
mind  the  caution  of  the  psychologists,  that  calling  at- 
tention to  a  form  before  we  are  ready  to  give  full, 
unremitting  attention  to  its  establishment  can  prob- 
ably have  no  other  result  than  confusion  and  repres- 
sion. Present  a  principle  only  when  its  need  is  clearly 
evident,  then  "attend"  to  it — drill  on  it  until  it  is  estab- 
lished. To  quote  Mr.  Leonard  again,  "Attack  that  is 
not  prepared,  concentrated,  and  determined  has  little 
chance  for  success." 

Teachers  may  conserve  their  energy  and  that  of 
their  pupils  by  avoiding  wasted  effort.  Usage  changes 
in  punctuation  as  well  as  in  other  matters.  Certain 
rules  found  in  textbooks  still  in  use  in  many  schools 
are  no  longer  observed  in  actual  practice.  Modern 
preference  favors  the  use  of  the  fewest  and  the  least 
obtrusive  marks  that  will  do  the  required  work.  Re- 
cent manuals  and  the  best  current  literature  should 
be  consulted  frequenjbly  and  systematically  to  gain  a 
precise  knowledge  of  the  contemporary  code  of  punc- 
tuation. This  elimination  of  dead  material  will  make 
more  practicable  the  plan  of  concentration  upon  a  few 
rules  each  year  and  their  establishment  as  matters  of 
habit.     And  this  achievement,  the  fixing  of  correct 


56  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

habits  in  the  matter,  is  the  vital  thing  in  the  teaching 
of  punctuation.  ^^^^  ^^^^^ 

FOR  FURTHER  THOUGHT 

1.  Discuss  Ward's  views  on  punctuation  in  his  book,  What  Is 
English?,  Chapters  VI,  VII,  VIII. 

2.  What  uses  of  the  comma  would  you  suggest  as  most  im- 
portant? 

3.  How  and  when  would  "ou  deal  with  restrictive  and  non- 
restrictive  clauses? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 
Klein,  W.  L.     Why  We  Punctuate. 

Leonard,  S.  A.  English  Composition  As  a  Social  Problem,  p.  126. 
Mahoney,  John  J.    Standards  in  English. 
Summey,  George,  Jr.     Modern  Punctuation:    Its    Utilities  and 

Conventions.  ^      ' 

Ward,  C.  H.   What  Is  English?,  Chapters  VI,  VII,  VIII. 
Manuals  since  1900  (in  the  order  of  their  publication) ;  De  Vinne, 

Orcutt,  Teall,  Klein,  McCracken  and  Sandison,  Manly  and 

Powell  (re\ased  in  1919).     The  last  named  is  a  combination 

of  academic  and  typographical  authority. 
The  English  Journal: 

Routh,  James.  "Three  Rules  for  the  Comma,"  Januaiy,  1917 ; 
"Report  of  the  Committee  on  the  Economy  of  Time," 
February,  1919. 


THE  PROBLEM  OF  SPELLING 

In  the  matters  of  spelling  and  jorm  we  must  con- 
sistently require  accuracy  and  refuse  approximations; 
we  must  insist  upon  uniformity  and  conformity  with 
the  best  usage.  Here  are  points  in  which  we  must  dis- 
courage individuality ;  here  we  may  not  allow  the  con- 
structive imagination  of  the  child  to  have  sway. 
Sureness  of  touch  in  the  spelling  of  all  words  used  by 
the  pupils  must  be  demanded. 


FUNDAMENTALS  57 

But  the  question  is  how  to  get  this  sureness  of 
touch? 

First  of  all,  we  must  arouse  in  the  pupil  the  desire 
for  this  sureness  of  touch.  It  would  be  pleasant  in- 
deed if  the  pupil  brought  with  him  a  genuine  desire 
to  spell  correctly.  But  if  he  does  not,  we  must  set 
about  creating  this  desire  on  the  spot.  One  effective 
way  of  doing  this  is  through  an  appeal  to  group  pride. 
By  working  on  the  individual  through  the  group  of 
which  he  is  a  member  much  may  be  done  to  develop  in 
the  pupil  a  spelling  conscience  to  which  he  must  hold 
himself  accountable  because  of  his  relation  to  the 
group,  because  of  his  responsibility  in  upholding 
standards  of  the  group.  This  is  the  appeal  made  by 
a  teacher  describing  his  experiment  in  a  recent.  Eng- 
lish Leaflet,  and  we  have  his  testimony  that  it  ac- 
complished results.  He  calls  his  device  the  "Spelling 
Team."    I  quote  his  account  at  length. 

"Every  teacher,  now  and  then,  has  to  meet  and  cope 
with  a  classr  of  almost  hopeless  spellers.  If  those  could 
only  be  caught  in  a  perfectly  wild  state  and  taught 
their  letters  one  at  a  time,  -it  would  be  easier.  But 
when  they  arrive  at  high  school  they  do  know  some 
words  already,  and  at  others  they  are  content  to  guess. 
The  problem  is  to  make  every  member  of  the  class 
discontented  with  this  guesswork.  Select  about  fifty 
of  the  worst  words;  terms  like  seize,  siege,  occasionally, 
necessary,  disappear,  irresistible,  describe,  persever- 
ance, and  parallel  Give  out  the  set,  take  the  rating 
of  each  student,  and  assign  the  list  for  part  of  the 
next  day's  study.  Announce  the  fact  that  the  very 
same  list  will  be  written  every  day  as  an  introduction 


58  ENGLISH    PROBLEMS 

to  the  regular  recitation,  until  not  one  mistake  is  made 
by  a  single  member  of  the  group.  As  long  as  one 
student  misspells  one  word,  the  entire  class  goes  on  and 
on  forever  spelling  that  same  set  of  words.  The  score 
is  announced  on  the  spot,  publicly.  Under  these  con- 
ditions it  becomes  unpopular  to  guess.  The  class  be- 
gins to  take  an  appreciative  pride  in  its  star  spellers, 
and  to  coach  between  times  those  few  who  always 
delay  the  wheels  of  progress.  When  at  last  these 
words  are  mastered  by  the  whole  team,  the  class  is  re- 
warded with  an  additional  fifty.  Sometimes  another 
section  is  studying  the  same  lists  of  words  with  a  spell- 
ing contest  in  view.  Of  course  the  only  way  in  which 
this  plan  is  different  from  regulation  spelhng  lessons 
is  the  fact  that  the  whole  class  is  brought  up  to  the 
level  of  the  best  before  the  list  is  considered  learned  at 
all.  After  this  season  of  grinding  toil,  every  boy  feels 
keenly  the  difference  between  knowing  a  word  and 
guessing  at  it,  and  the  best  spellers,  upon  whom  this 
proceeding  is  almost  an  imposition,  are  the  first  to  an- 
nounce that  at  last  they  are  absolutely  sure  about  the 
spelling  of  the  slippery  principles  and  principals,  weird, 
and  yield,  and  the  various  assortments  of  stationery." 

There  is  no  doubt  that  our  spelling  tests  have  been 
too  long.  We  have  tried  to  teach  too  many  words. 
Let  us,  as  Professor  Jones  says,  "cease  to  worry  about 
the  3000  words  and  make  a  bloodthirsty  attack  upon 
the  300."  Intensive  work  is  the  only  work  that  counts 
in  the  teaching  of  spelling.  Mr.  Ward  in  his  book, 
What  Is  English?,  gives  a  most  excellent  exposition  of 
this  method.     ("Intensive  Spelling,"  Chap.  III.) 

Often  the  spelling  lessons  should  resolve  themselves 


'  FUNDAMENTALS  59 

into  dictionary  work.  The  pupils  should  study  in  class 
with  the  teacher  the  Revised  International  Webster: 
its  make-up;  its  contents;  rules  for  pronunciation; 
derivations ;  the  biographical  dictionary ;  the  gazetteer. 
Encourage  the  use  of  the  dictionary.  Always  have 
words  about  which  there  is  any  doubt  looked  up  at  the 
moment  of  discussion,  not  later. 

Frequently  it  is  very  much  worth  while  to  test  the 
pupil's  knowledge  of  spelling  by  the  dictation  of  short 
paragraphs,  instead  of  by  the  isolated  word  list.  In 
such  a  test  the  pupil  comes  to  realize  the  close  rela- 
tionship of  spoken  and  written  English  and  the  use  of 
knowing  how  to  spell.  Dictation  exercises  are  of  great 
value,  also,  in  helping  the  pupil  to  master  the  sentence 
and  the  theory  of  punctuation.  In  all  such  exercises 
the  pupil  must  be  aiert;  he  must  give  close  attention 
and  a  ready  response.  RoUo  Brown  in  his  book.  How 
the  French  Boy  Learns  to  Write,  tells  us  that  dictation 
exercises  play  a  very  important  part  in  the  French  boy's 
education,  and  are  considered  one  of  the  best  means 
of  teaching  accuracy  and  concentration.  We  could  use 
this  method  in  our  schools  to  advantage  far  more  than 
we  do. 

It  is  possible  to  vitalize  the  spelling  work  by  every 
now  and  then  turning  the  spelling  period  into  a  period 
of  classroom  study  of  interesting  words,  their  deriva- 
tion, original  meaning,  derived  meanings,  their  syno- 
nyms, and  antonyms.  It  is  possible,  indeed,  in  this 
way  to  get  up  a  real  interest  in  words  from  the  point 
of  view  of  their  varying  uses.  They  will  all  be  inter- 
ested in  a  study  of  the  pun,  a  play  upon  words,  also 
in  the  different  pictures  allied  words  bring  up.    For 


60  ENGLISH    PROBLEMS 

instance:  ask  the  pupils  what  pictures  the  following 
words  bring  to  them:  walked;  strode;  ambled;  stalked; 
marched;  or,  another  group:  talked;  conversed;  dis- 
cussed; chatted;  chattered;  explained;  debated.  Ask 
them  to  suggest  lists.  They  will  be  much  interested 
in  doing  so. 

A  very  desirable  way  of  finding  out  how  to  group  the 
class  by  spelling  ability  is  to  try  out  the  list  of  words 
to  be  assigned  bejore  they  are  studied.  Then  those 
who  make  no  mistakes  are  not  to  have  those  words 
on  their  list  for  study.  For  as  Mr.  Sherwin  Cody  says 
in  his  100%  Speller,  'It  is  dangerous  to  study  con- 
sciously words  of  which  the  correct  spelling  is  already 
habitual,  since  valuable  unconscious  mental  habits  are 
likely  to  be  upset,  and  only  wrong  spelling  will  be 
learned.  Much  bad  spelling  is-  actually  taught  in 
school,  which  is  an  evil  in  itself,  to  say  nothing  of  the 
inefficient  waste  of  time."  (p.  3.)  The  teaching  of 
spelling  is  far  too  mechanical.  The  usual  task  as- 
signed pupils  of  writing,  correctly,  misspelled  words 
twenty  or  thirty  times  has  little  value  as  a  rule.  The 
pupil  writes  automatically  with  his  eye  and  mind  any- 
where but  on  the  subject.  Unless  the  pupil  is  active 
instead  of  passive,  the  drill  is  useless.  The  misspelled 
word  should  always  be  corrected  by  the  pupil,  but  the 
exercise  might  be  varied  by  having  the  pupil  bring  in 
two  or  three  sentences  in  which  the  word  is  correctly 
spelled,  or  the  word  may  be  written  as  many  times  as 
the  pupil  can  find  synonyms.  The  dictionary  habit 
will  do  more  than  all  else  to  weaken  what  Havelock 
Ellis  calls  "the  creative  vitality"  our  pupils  show  in 
spelling.     Mere  mechanical  remedies   for   correction 


FUNDAMENTALS  61 

of  misspelled  words  such  as  writing  the  word  over 
many  times  often  prove  of  no  more  value  than  in  the 
case  of  the  little  boy  who  stayed  after  school  to  learn 
"I  have  gone."  He  wrote  it  forty  times,  then  left 
this  message  for  the  teacher.  "I  have  wrote  this  fort> 
times  and  have  went  home."  Finally,  we  should  dis- 
tinguish between  the  reading  vocabulary  of  the  child 
and  his  practical  vocabulary.  Teach  him  to  spell  the 
new  words  he  learns  in  his  reading  that  he  will  prob- 
ably incorporate  into  his  own  vocabulary,  written  and 
spoken.  These  he  must  learn  to  spell.  '  The  others 
may  be  neglected  for  the  time  being. 

In  the  subject  of  spelling  the  pupil  should  by  all 
means  keep  a  stock-book.  He  should  make  a  list  of 
words  formerly  difficult  but  now  mastered.  He  should 
also  list  his  special  weaknesses.  And  as  soon  as  one  of 
these  enemies  is  conquered,  he  should  transfer  it  to  his 
stock-in-trade.  Such  lists  conscientiously  kept  will  aid 
greatly  in  solving  the  spelling  problem  for  the  in- 
dividual. 

FOR  FURTHER  THOUGHT 

1.  Discuss  Ward's  treatment  of  the  subject,  "Intensive  Spell- 
ing." 

2.  Discuss  the  value  of  dictionary  work  in  the  spelling  lesson. 

3.  Suggest  ways  of  impressing  upon  the  student  the  necessity 
for  correct  spelling. 

4.  In  what  ways  may  dictation  exercises  be  made  of  value  in 
the  spelling  lesson? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Ayers,  Leonard  P.  A  Measuring  Scale  for  Ability  in  Spelling, 
Russell  Sage  Foundation,  1915. 

Suzzallo,  Henry.     The  Teaching  of  Spelling. 

Ward,  C.  H.  What  Is  English  ?  Chapter  III,  "Intensive  Spell- 
ing." 

The  Reorganization  Bulletin,  p.  167. 


62  ENGLISH  PROBLEMS 

The  English  Journal: 

Clark,  Hazel  E.     "From  the  Green  Primer  to  the  Brown," 

February,  1916. 
Lester,  J.  A.     "Teaching  Freshmen  to  Spell,"  June,  1916. 
Lester,  J.  A.    "Delimitation  of  the  Spelling  Problem,"  June, 

1917, 
Lester,  J.  A.    "An  Unfenced  Corner  of  the  Spelling  Field," 

Jime,  1919. 
Parsons,  E.  W.     "A  Word  on  Spelling,"  December,   1917 

(R.  T.). 
Ward,  C.  H.    "A  Bottomless  Pond,"  May,  1916  (R.  T.). 


THE  PROBLEM  OF  THE  VOCABULARY 

Someone  has  said  that  misunderstandings  arise  from 
three  causes:  (1)  using  the  same  word  in  different 
senses,  (2)  using  different  words  in  the  same  sense,  and 
(3)  using  words  with  no  sense.  If  we  classify  our 
pupils  on  this  basis,  we  may  rest  assured  that  we  shall 
always  have  the  last  class  with  us,  just  as  in  life  they 
are  ubiquitous.  We  can,  however,  give  some  training 
to  develop  in  our  pupils  a  feeling  for  words  and  a  sense 
of  responsibility  for  their  use,  and  thus  lessen  the  num- 
bers in  classes  one  and  two.  How  shall  we  develop  in 
our  pupils  this. feeling  for  words?  In  some  way  we 
must  make  them  realize  that  words  are  living  things, 
each  with  its  own  personality,  each  having  its  own 
function.  Every  child  should  know  something  of  the 
history  of  his  language.  This  he  can  get  in  a  general 
way  from  the  introductory  accounts  in  the  dictionary. 
The  teacher  may  supplement  what  he  finds  there  by 
giving  specific  examples  of  the  interesting  things  that 
have  happened  to  words  in  the  course  of  their  lives, 
and  thus  impress  the  pupil  with  the  dynamic  character 
of  language.  Words  and  Their  Ways  in  English 
Speech,  by  Greenough   and  Kittredge,  and  Modern 


FUNDAMENTALS  63 

English,  by  George  Philip  Krapp,  afford  many  ex- 
amples of  the  way  in  which  language  has  developed, 
and  the  strange  vicissitudes  through  which  many 
words  have  passed.  In  connection  with  the  history 
of  the  language  there  is,  of  course,  the  opportunity  for 
the  study  of  the  derivation  of  words.  This  matter  of 
etymology  is  not  one  to  be  handled  carelessly.  There 
is  a  great  deal  of  false  etymology  resulting  from  super- 
ficial analysis  of  words.  Even  Ruskin  did  not  escape 
this  pitfall,  when  he  derived  "wife"  from  "weaver"  and 
drew  many  sentimental  conclusions  from  an  etymology 
which  is  absolutely  false. 

The  relation  of  the  study  of  etymology  to  the  forma- 
tion of  vocabulary  is  well  stated  by  Dr.  Krapp.  "Since 
the  English  vocabulary  is  derived  from  so  many  differ- 
ent sources,  it  will  be  readily  seen  that  the  study  of 
etymology,  which  is  the  study  of  the  origin  and  history 
of  words,  is  one  of  peculiar  interest  to  those  whose 
native  speech  is  English.  It  is  not  always,  nor  indeed 
generally,  necessary  to  know  the  etymology  of  a  word  in 
order  to  use  it  correctly.  Words  mean  today  exactly 
the  ideas  which  they  convey  from  one  person  to  an- 
other, and  any  forcible  attempt  to  make  their  present 
use  conform  to  their  etymological  meaning  is  pedantic 

and  vain Nevertheless,  as  one's  knowledge  of 

the  history  and  origin  of  one's  vocabulary  increases,  in 
the  same  degree  one's  use  of  words  will  grow  in  definite- 
ness  and  certainty  of  meaning  and  in  richness  of  con- 
tent." Impress  the  pupils  with  the  importance  of 
shades  of  meaning.  These  will  often  stand  out  more 
clearly  if  the  history  is  known. 

But  it  is  usage  after  all  that  is  most  important.    Too 


64  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

much  of  our  work  in  vocabulary  has  been  theoretical 
rather  than  practical.  It  is,  of  course,  desirable  for 
the  pupil  to  understand  what  constitutes  good  usage, 
but  it  is  not  enough  that  he  shall  recite  glibly  the  mean- 
ing in  national,  reputable,  and  present  use.  He  should 
be  constantly  in  the  business  of  enlarging  and  enriching 
his  own  vocabulary.  His  attention  should  be  called  to 
his  usage  of  the  words  he  finds  in  his  own  reading,  the 
conversation  of  others,  the  lectures  he  hears,  and  the 
textbooks  that  he  studies,  rather  than  to  the  correction 
of  selected  lists  of  improprieties,  barbarisms,  and 
solecisms  that  he  may  never  be  guilty  of.  The  work 
should  be  constructive,  not  negative.  Instead  of  learn- 
ing that  technical  words  are  not  in  good  use  in  ordinary 
speech,  he  should  learn  from  his  other  subjects  just 
when  and  how  to  use  technical  words  properly. 

Drill  on  definitions,  definitions  that  define.  Play 
games  in  which  the  same  word  is  used  in  various  ways. 
Make  lists  of  words  that  function  as  different  parts  of 
speech,  as  noun  and  verb,  for  instance.  Interest  the 
pupil  in  synonyms.  Encourage  him  to  keep  lists  of 
the  new  words  he  discovers  in  his  readings.  Let  him 
become  intimate  with  th^  dictionary;  let  him  discover 
its  shortcomings  as  well  as  its  usefulness.  It  is  not 
perhaps  necessary  that  he  should  emulate  Robert 
Browning  who,  it  has  been  said,  read  and  digested 
Johnson's  English  Dictio7iary  as  soon  as  he  had  defi- 
nitely decided  to  enter  upon  a  life  devoted  to  litera- 
ture. Systematic  study  of  the  dictionary  may,  how- 
ever, be  of  great  value.  A  pupil  may  learn  from 
its  study,  for  one  thing,  that  the  fact  that  a  word  ap- 
pears in  the  dictionary  does  not  necessarily  justify  his 


FUNDAMENTALS  65 

use  of  it.  It  may  be  marked  ''obsolete,"  or  "collo- 
quial," or  "local,"  or  "vulgar,"  and  these  terms  will 
guide  him  when  he  is  in  doubt.  The  dictionary  should 
be  a  constant  friend  in  the  recitation  period.  Do  not 
postpone  the  disputed  meaning  until  the  next  day. 
Let  the  pupil  turn  at  once  to  the  dictionary  and  make 
a  report  then  and  there  to  the  class  of  what  he  finds. 
Words  are  interesting,  and  pupils  will  readily  dis- 
cover this  fact  if  led  to  the  study  of  words  in  a  dynamic 
way.  List  new  words  that  have  come  into  the  language 
because  of  the  war  and  because  of  recent  inventions. 
Have  word  matches  based  on  these  ideas.  Let  pupils 
once  really  feel  the  vitality  of  words,  and  all  will  be 
clear  sailing.  Discourage  the  use  of  "words,  words, 
words."  Encourage  the  use  of  the  right  word  in  the 
right  place.  Nothing  will  combat  the  pupil's  use  of 
slang  or  his  use  of  one  word  to  express  a  thousand 
meanings  like  this  direct  attack  upon  his  vocabulary. 
It  is  because  the  pupil's  word-hoard  is  so  meager  that 
he  indulges  so  freely  in  slang.  "Avoid  slang"  is  of 
no  pedagogic  value  unless  the  student  is  shown  where- 
in he  may  express  the  same  ideas  with  equal  force. 
Slang  is  a  weed  that  must  be  eliminated,  but  we  must 
not  leave  the  pupil  speechless.  Flowers  must  be 
planted  and  grown  in  his  garden  of  expression  to  take 
the  place  of  the  weeds  which  grow  only  too  readily. 
Show  him  that  slang  is  due  largely  to  his  paucity  of 
language  and  partly  to  the  tendency  of  the  modern 
American  to  clip  his  words  by  way  of  making  short 
cuts.  Impress  boys  and  girls  with  the  fact  that  it  pays 
to  give  time  and  thought  to  expression.  Lack  of 
thought  results  in  the  indiscriminate  use  of  nice,  grand, 


66  ENGLISH  PROBLEMS 

awjul,  etc.  Hurry  accounts  for  "Doc,"  "gym," 
"exam,"  etc.  Slang  that  is  drawn  from  associations 
that  are  low  and  vulgar  is  more  easily  combated  than 
the  types  mentioned.  Slang  which  is  the  spontaneous 
expression  of  some  forceful  comparison  may  be  dealt 
with  leniently,  for  "language  is  fossil  poetry,"  and 
many  an  expression  which  was  once  considered  slang 
has  acquired  a  permanent  foothold  in  good  society. 

To  speak  of  "growing  flowers"  in  the  pupil's  vocabu- 
lary is  perhaps  an  unfortunate  expression.  It  brings 
to  mind  another  enemy  of  good  expression  that  is  due 
largely  to  affectation  and  insincerity,  "fine  writing" — 
the  use  of  too  many  words.  We  are  all  familiar  with 
-the  padded  composition,  the  composition  that  is 
evidently  not  an  effort  to  express  something  but  an 
effort  to  impress  someone,  usually  the  teacher.  Bar- 
rett Wendell  says  of  freshman  college  themes,  "On 
an  average,  I  venture  to  assert,  one-half  of  the  words 
in  any  such  composition  can  be  stricken  out  without 
the  loss  of  a  shade  of  meaning.  What  is  more,  the 
process  of  excision  is  apt  to  result  in  a  surprisingly 
idiomatic  precision  of  style."  In  developing  a  wide 
vocabulary  we  should  therefore  guard  against  this 
danger  of  encouraging  a  kind  of  insincere  and  euphuis- 
tic  English.  Striving  for  the  big  word  is  another  re- 
sult of  affectation  as  well  as  attempting  to  use  too 
many  words.  In  that  connection,  simplicity  is  the 
ideal.  Dr.  Krapp  sums  it  up  in  this  way,  "Never  use 
a  long  word  when  a  shorter  one  will  do  as  well." 

Arouse  in  the  pupil  the  desire  to  increase  his 
vocabulary.  Let  him  go  about  the  acquisition  of  new 
words   deliberately   and   consciously.     And   let   him 


FUNDAMENTALS  67 

make  use  of  his  new  words  in  his  written  work  and 
oral  speech.  The  only  test  of  vocabulary  is  in  the  oral 
and  written  use  of  words.  Too  often  we  are  apt  to 
measure  the  extent  of  our  own  vocabularies  by  what 
we  read,  feeling  that  we  possess  the  author's  vocabu- 
lary because  we  understand  his  meaning.  While  wide 
reading  is  most  certainly  one  of  the  best  and  surest 
means  of  enlarging  the  vocabulary,  it  remains  for  prac- 
tice in  expression  to  turn  that  reading  into  real  use, 
and  to  prove  whether  or  not  we  have  an  army  of 
words  that  will  leap  to  our  bidding  when  we  need 
them.  Otherwise  the  greatest  of  bookworms  may  be 
the  least  articulate  of  speech.  "Giving  the  meaning'' 
of  unfamiliar  words  in  the  text,  in  response  to  the 
teacher's  question,  is  not  helping  the  pupil  to  enlarge 
his  vocabulary.  Active  and  specific  drill  in  the  busi- 
ness of  forming  a  vocabulary  must  be  carried  on.  Let 
the  pupil  select  new  words  from  his  reading  and  de- 
liberately practice  them  in  use.  No  attempt  should 
be  made  to  have  the  pupil  acquire  all  the  new  words 
that  he  meets.  Instead,  he  should  aim  to  fix  a  few 
words  at  a  time,  and  those  of  course  should  be  se- 
lected that  he  can  use  naturally — words  that  are  not 
outside  of.  his  experience.  Just  here  nothing  could  be 
more  stimulating  than  the  reading  of  Professor 
Palmer's  Self -Cultivation  in  English,  and  of  parts  of 
Ruskin's  Sesame  and  Lilies.  We  all  know  that  the 
effective  use  of  words  comes  only  through  the  intelli- 
gent appreciation  of  words.  And  while  we  cannot  be- 
stow upon  the  pupil  the  gift  of  the  "right  word,"  we 
can  develop  in  him  a  feeling  for  words,  a  genuine  word 
sense. 


68  ENGLISH   PROBLE 

The  importance  of  word  use  can  be  brought  home  to 
the  pupils  in  the  high  school  through  their  work  in 
debate.  Here,  better  than  anywhere  else,  will  it  be 
possible  for  the  pupil  to  realize  the  importance  of  care- 
ful, accurate  definition  and  exact  use  of  words.  No 
more  important  study  in  the  whole  English  course 
can  be  found  than  the  careful  analysis  of  ''terms"  in  a 
proposition  for  debate.  Often  the  analysis  develops 
the  point  that  opponents  are  in  accord  and  that  there 
is  no  room  for  argument.  Think  how  much  time  and 
energy  in  later  life  will  be  saved  if  the  pupil  in  his 
school  days  acquires  the  habit  of  close  analysis  of 
words  and  accurate  use  of  the  mother  tongue.  The 
effects  are  far-reaching  and  oftentimes  extend  to  vital 
things. 

Words  are  but  names.  If  it  is  true,  as  has  been  said, 
that  the  junior  high  school  is  the  place  par  excellence 
for  the  teaching  of  narrative,  here  indeed  is  an  op- 
portunity for  enriching  the  vocabulary.  The  pupil 
is  at  home  in  the  field  of  action ;  he  is  at  the  age  when 
he  delights  to  do  things,  and  still  more  to  read  and  to 
see  in  the  moving  picture-play  rapid-fire  action.  But 
when  he  comes  to  give  his  account  of  the  story  he  has 
read,  the  "movie"  he  has  seen,  or  the  adventure  he  has 
participated  in,  how  small  is  his  stock  of  verbs  and 
how  colorless!  Here  is  the  chance  to  let  him  learn  the 
names  of  many  kinds  of  action  not  to  be  fully  de- 
scribed by  went  and  did  and  saw.  Interest  him  in  the 
naming  of  actions  through  the  use  of  a  variety  of  verbs. 
He  will  find  that  it  will  take  more  than  his  usual 
vocabulary  to  characterize  all  the  movements  of  a 
Douglas  Fairbanks.    He  is  at  the  age  when  his  natural 


FUNDAMENTALS  69 

curiosity  as  to  the  names  of  things  is  still  keen.  "What 
is  it?"  is  the  question  he  asks,  and  a  name  satisfies. 
Interest  him  in  the  naming  of  colors  and  shapes 
through  the  use  of  a  variety  of  adjectives,  and  when 
he  comes  to  the  senior  high  school,  he  may  apply  that 
same  interest  in  the  identification  of  ideas. 

The  development  of  a  clear,  adequate,  and  forceful 
vocabulary  has  a  very  definite  connection  with  the 
"Better  Speech  Movement."  Although  this  nation- 
wide movement  for  better  speech  is  largely  directed 
toward  better  enunciation,  better  pronunciation,  and 
the  elimination  of  gross  grammatical  errors,  it  has  also 
for  one  of  its  aims  the  elimination  of  slang.  Then,  too, 
the  relation  of  vocabulary  work  to  reading  and  oral 
recitation  must  be  constantly  borne  in  mind.  Lee 
Bassett  in  his  Handbook  of  Oral  Reading  says,  "The 
monotonous  and  ^sing-song'  reading  so  often  heard  in 
the  classroom  and  elsewhere. is  due  largely  to  this 
heavy-eyed  glimpsing  and  perfunctory  voicing  of 
words  without  definite  knowledge  of  what  they 
mean." 

The   connection   between    constructive   vocabulary 

work  and  spelling  is  obvious.    //  the  spelling  of  each 

new  wof d  with  its  pronunciation  could  be  fixed  at  the 

time  of  learning  the  new  word,  there  would  be  no 

spelling  problem.  _    .,     _   ^, 

Emily  F.  Sleman 

FOR  FURTHER  THOUGHT 

1.  How  will  you  present  the  principle  suggested  by  the  expres- 
sion, "A  word  is  known  by  the  company  it  keeps"? 

2.  Why  should  we  distinguish  between   the  reading  and   the 
speaking  vocabulary  of  the  pupil? 


70  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

3.  Suggest   some   devices   for  stimulating   an   interest   in   the 
adding  of  new  words  to  the  vocabulary. 

4.  Discuss  the  value  of  dictation  as  a  means  of  increasing  the 
vocabulary. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Greenough  and  Kittredge.     Words  and  Their  Ways  in  English 

Speech. 
Krapp,  Philip.     Modern  English,  Its  Growth  and  Present  Use., 
Lewis,  W.  D.    Knowing  and  Using  Words. 
Palmer,  G.  H.     Self -Cultivation  in  English. 
Ruskin,  J.     Sesame  and  Lilies. 
The  English  Journal: 

Dobie,     Frank.       "Words,     Words,     Words,     My     Lord." 
January,  1919. 


CHAPTER  THREE 

ORAL  AND  WRITTEN  EXPRESSION 
The  Problem  of  Better  Speech.    The  Problem  of  Written  Work. 
The  Problem  of  the  Letter.    The  Problem  of  Theme  Correct- 
ing.   Measurement  of  Results. 

THE  PROBLEM  OF  BETTER  SPEECH 

/.     Oral  English 

In  viewing  the  subject  of  teaching  English  compo- 
sition let  us  look  first  at  oral  English.  This  is  the 
natural  order,  for  long  before  we  have  written  language, 
we  have  oral  speech;  long  before  we  have  a  written 
literature  we  have  the  bard,  the  scop,  the  gleeman, 
carrying  the  legend  and  song  of  the  heroes  of  camp 
and  field  from  court  to  court,  and  passing  down  the 
story  by  word  of  mouth  from  generation  to  generation. 
Moreover,  the  pupil  today  is  called  upon  to  talk  far 
oftener  than  he  is  called  upon  to  write.  Says  Mr. 
Clarence  Stratton,  Chairman  of  the  Committee  on 
American  Speech  of  the  National  Council  of  Teachers 
of  English:  "The  most  ordinary  relations  of  life  de- 
mand speech.  Dozens  of  careers  depend  upon  language 
use.  Responsibility  and  ability  come  with  mastery  of 
speaking.  The  teacher's  product  is  examined,  tested, 
judged,  by  every  word  that  comes  from  the  lips  of 
every  student.''  First  of  all,  then,  we  should  attend  to 
the  speech  of  our  children. 

It  is  generally  agreed  that  the  study  of  oral  Eng- 
lish should  develop  power  in  the  pupil  (1)  to  answer 
questions  accurately;  (2)  to  converse  agreeably;  (3) 

71 


72 


ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 


to  present  a  case;  (4)  to  read  aloud  intelligently  and 
intelligibly.  To  produce  these  results,  oral  English 
should  be  presented  under  two  aspects:  (1)  the 
mechanics  of  speech;  (2)  the  practice  of  speech. 

For  several  years  we  have  all  been  reading  much  and 
learning  much  about  the  American  voice.  Already, 
attempts  are  being  made  in  the  schools  for  definite 
^training  of  the  voice.  This  training  should  start  in 
the  very  first  grade,  where,  of  course,  it  should  be  in- 
formal, but  it  should  be  organized  into  a  definite  course 
by  the  time  the  pupil  reaches  the  junior  high  school, 
where  through  correlation  with  other  departments  of 
study  much  may  be  done. 

In  the  mechanics  of  speech  both  the  junior  and  the 
senior  high-school  teacher  should  attend  to  the  fol- 
lowing : 

(In  these  two  points  the  Eng- 
lish    teacher     should     co- 
operate with   the  physical 
training  department.) 
(Correlate     here     with     the 
,    music  department.) 
(Correlation  with  the  physical 

training  department.) 
(Definite  drill  on  run-together 
words  such  as  would  have, 
by  and  by;  and  word  end- 
ings such  as  ing,  ed,  t.) 
(Persistent  practice  on  words 
commonly  mispronounced 
— such  as  drowned,  at- 
tacked,  length,  height.) 


1.  Posture 

2.  Breathing 


3.  Vocalization 


4.  Articulation 


5.  Enunciation 


6.  Pronunciation 


ORAL   AND    WRITTEN   EXPRESSION  73 

Not  until  we  have  voice  work  in  the  school  curriculum 
can  we  hope  for  any  perceptible  improvement  in  our 
much  berated  American  speech.  Hear  what  Adjutant 
General  McCain  has  to  say  on  the  subject  in  relation 
to  the  failure  of  students  in  the  training  camps  to 
qualify  for  the  Officers  Reserve. 

"A  great  number  of  men  have  failed  at  camp  because 
of  inability  to  articulate  clearly.  Many  men  disquali- 
fied by  this  handicap  might  have  become  officers  under 
their  country's  flag  had  they  been  properly  trained  in 
school  and  college  .  .  .  It  is  hoped,  therefore,  that 
more  emphasis  will  be  placed  upon  the  basic  principles 
of  elocution  in  the  training  of  our  youth.  Great  im- 
provement could  be  wrought  by  instructors  in  our 
schools  and  colleges,  regardless  of  the  subject,  insisting 
that  all  answers  be  given  in  a  loud,  clear,  well-rounded 
voice,  which,  of  course,  necessitates  the  opening  of  the 
mouth  and  free  movement  of  the  lips.'' 

Let  us  follow  this  wholesome  advice  and  give  definite 
work  in  training  the  speech  of  our  pupils. 

In  the  matter  of  Practice  we  may  consider  oral  Eng- 
lish under  the  following  heads: 

1.  The  question  and  answer. 

2.  The  informal  talk. 

3.  The  special  topic  report. 

4.  The  debate. 

5.  Oral  reading. 

6.  Recitation  of  memorized  passages,  prose  and 

poetry. 

7.  Dramatics. 

In  every  year  of  both  junior  and  senior  high  school 
there  should  be  practice  of  the  character  indicated  by 


74  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

each  one  of  these  heads,  the  emphasis  varying  with 
the  maturity  of  the  student. 

Back  of  the  power  of  adequate  expression  is  the 
power  of  thinking.  Thought  should  control  all  ex- 
pression. The  expression  must  be  made  to  fit  the 
thought.  The  pupil  must  be  trained  to  speak  with  his 
mind  on  the  subject.  Perhaps  the  most  striking 
example  of  the  weakness  of  our  pupils  in  concentration 
is  shown  by  their  inability  to  ask  intelligent  questions 
and  to  give  accurate  answers.  I  quote  again  from  the 
Adjutant  General's  letter :  "Many  men  have  not  been 
trained  to  appreciate  the  importance  of  accuracy  in 
thinking.  Too  many  schools  are  satisfied  with  an  ap- 
proximate answer  to  questions.  Little  or  no  incentive 
is  given  increased  mental  effort  to  coordinate  one's 
ideas  and  present  them  clearly  and  unequivocally.^' 
Here,  at  last,  is  a  point  of  departure  for  cooperative 
work  in  all  departments  of  study  in  the  high  school. 
Here,  at  least,  all  teachers  can  get  together  and  agree 
to  demand  exact,  and  to  refuse  approximate,  answers 
to  questions.  We  teachers  are  ever  too  ready  to  help 
a  pupil  out,  to  repeat  and  expand  the  pupil's  answer, 
to  do  the  work  for  him.  Let  us  insist  that  before  a 
pupil  speaks  he  must  think  out  what  he  is  going  to 
say.  A  discussion  that  gets  anywhere  presupposes 
thought  clothed  respectably  at  least.  An  intelligent 
question  presupposes  exact  knowledge  of  what  the 
questioner  wants  to  say.  Much  practice  should  be 
given  pupils  in  asking  questions  about  the  subject 
under  discussion  in  a  recitation  period.  Let  us  not  be 
satisfied  until  the  pupil  has  made  his  question  perfectly 
clear,  and  we  will  find  that  the  teacher's  standard  for 


ORAL   AND    WRITTEN   EXPRESSION  75 

the  pupil  has  at  last  become  the  pupil's  own.  In  the 
informal  talk  and  special  topic  report,  the  question  and 
answer  may  become  a  feature  of  class  activity. 

A  word  or  two  now  about  these  two  aspects  of  oral 
English. 

How  shall  we  keep  our  audience  attentive,  alert, 
active  during  the  short  talk  or  more  formal  report  of 
special  pupils?  Let  the  speaker  quiz  the  class  as  to 
points  he  has  made;  let  members  of  the  audience  ask 
the  speaker  questions  about  certain  things  touched 
upon  that  were  of  particular  interest  or  that  were  not 
understood.  Establish  this  habit  of  cross-fire  attack 
upon  thought  and  the  expression  of  thought,  and  the 
passive  group  of  pupils  so  familiar  to  us  all  will  become 
a  diminishing  quantity.  Every  pupil  should  be  ready  < 
to  come  forward  and  speak  to  the  class  for  a  minute  or 
two  at  any  time.  As  a  means  of  developing  desire  and 
ability  to  do  this,  informal  talks  should  be  assigned  for 
preparation  at  home.  These  may  be  based  on  interest- 
ing facts  read  in  the  newspaper  or  magazine,  happen- 
ings about  the  schoof  or  on  the  playground,  experi- 
ments and  processes  performed  and  observed  in  the 
laboratory,  the  shop,  or  the  work-room.  Occasionally 
the  lantern-slide  talk  prepared  by  a  group  of  pupils 
is  of  interest  to  the  class,  and  every  little  while  the 
class  may  become  a  story- telling  club.  Let  pupils 
preside  and  conduct  the  meeting  and  cast  votes  for  the 
best  stories.  The  best  stories  might  be  told  to  a  larger 
group  of  pupils — in  the  assembly  hall,  perhaps. 

In  the  upper  years  of  the  senior  high  school  the 
special  topic  becomes  a  feature  of  the  English  work. 
Every  pupil  in  the  class  is  to  do  library  work  at  the 


76  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

school  library  or  at  the  public  library,  the  same  to  take 
shape  in  the  form  of  an  oral  report  or  debate.  The 
report  or  speech  should  never  be  read.  It  is  well,  how- 
ever, for  the  pupil  to  make  use  of  outline  notes  made 
on  small  cards  which  are  held  in  the  hand  during  the 
presentation  of  the  speech.  It  is  said  that  this  is 
President  Wilson's  method  of  delivering  his  addresses. 
The  topics  and  assignments  should  be  announced  early 
in  the  semester,  and  it  is  hardly  wise  to  have  a  report 
given  under  two  weeks  from  the  date  of  assignment. 
The  teacher  should  give  the  pupils  specific  references 
for  the  work  and  hold  conferences  with  the  pupils  when 
necessary. 

Often  the  group  method  of  treatment  of  the  special 
topic  works  well.  A  group  of  pupils  is  given  one  topic 
to  develop.  A  leader  of  the  group  is  selected.  He 
divides  the  subject  and  apportions  the  work  and  sets 
a  time  for  report  to  the  class.  On  special  topic  day 
the  class  may  again  become  a  club  with  a  pupil  as 
chairman,  presiding.  He  is  responsible  for  the  program, 
conducts  the  meeting,  presents  the  speakers,  and  leads 
the  discussion. 

Pupils  should  prepare  speeches  for  all  occasions  of 
school  life,  for  the  football  supper,  the  baseball 
championship;  for  urging  support  of  school  interests, 
the  school  paper,  the  literary  society,  the  debating  club. 
It  would  be  well  for  the  teacher  to  read  to  the  class 
some  good  after-dinner  speeches,  for  instance,  Mark 
Twain's  "New  England  Weather,"  and  certain  speeches 
of  Depew.  These  are  suggestive  and  will  give  the  pupil 
a  standard.  Real  occasions,  if  possible,  should  furnish 
the  motive  for  the  preparation  of  the  speeches. 


ORAL   AND    WRITTEN   EXPRESSION  77 

Class  debates  on  topics  of  school  or  current  interest 
should  be  held  in  every  section,  and  every  member 
should  have  a  turn  at  this  work.  Let  the  class  resolve 
itself  into  a  debating  society  on  these  occasions  with 
a  pupil-chairman  presiding.  The  chairman  conducts 
the  meeting,  introduces  the  speakers,  appoints  judges, 
and  recognizes  speakers  in  the  informal  discussion  of 
the  question  after  the  debate  is  over. 

Oral  reading  by  the  pupils  should  form  a  part  of 
every  English  period  whether  it  be  labeled  Composi- 
tion or  Literature.  Such  reading  should  sometimes 
be  sight  reading  but  more  often  the  reading  of  passages 
that  have  been  prepared  at  home.  The  test  of  the  read- 
ing should  be  the  listening  class.  While  one  pupil  is 
reading,  the  other  pupils  are  listening,  not  following 
the  page  with  the  eye.  Books  should  be  closed,  and 
the  ear  alone  be  used  to  test  the  reading.  The  follow- 
ing quotation  from  The  English  Leaflet  for  Novem- 
ber, 1914,  emphasizes  this  point: 

^"How  shall  we,  as  Dr.  Snedden  suggests,  invent 
devices  to  teach  the  art  of  intelligent  hearing?  Since 
his  manuscript  went  to  press,  one  or  two  schemes  have 
been  tried,  with  just  enough  success  to  lure  on  the 
experimenter.  A  class  was  met  with  this  challenge — 
Can  you  listen?  Can  you  rely  on  yourself  to  register 
accurately?  Can  you  compel  an  uninteresting  speaker 
to  be  heard  by  you?  Can  you  force  the  remarks  of  a 
wandering  lecturer  into  orderly  thought  in  your  own 
mind?  Are  you  capable  of  protracted  listening? 
Prove  it. 

"The  preparation  of  the  class  for  two  days  was  con- 

1.   The  English  Leaflet   (contributed),  November,  1914. 


78  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

fined  to  written  work  in  order  that  the  recitation  time 
might  be  given  over  to  the  listening  test.  Each  mem- 
ber of  the  class  selected  a  book  from  his  own  library, 
chose  a  page  for  reading  aloud,  and  prepared  a  set  of 
nine  searching  questions  based  on  the  details  of  the 
passage.  These  questions  he  asked  after  reading  the 
page  to  the  class.  Rapid  questioning,  no  raising  of 
hands,  brisk  calling  on  the  unwary,  a  stern  demand  for 
accuracy  made  the  occasion  one  of  shocking  nervous 
tension  but  of  revelation !  Listening  was  no  quiescent 
state,  but  a  constructive  process.  One  period  brought 
striking  increase  in  alertness.  Nine  cruel  questions  be- 
fore you  and  no  time  to  invent  answers — who  would 
doze?  The  oral  reading  improved;  for  a  group  that  is 
going  to  be  catechized  insists  on  audible  speech.  A 
pedagogical  We  aren't  hearing'  cannot  compare  in 
effectiveness  with  the  insistent  demands  from  the  rear. 
There  was  the  wildest  variety  of  selection,  ranging 
from  Roger  Ascham  and  Sir  Francis  to  Elbert  Hub- 
bard and  Booth  Tarkington. 

"The  only  enduring  worth  of  this  experiment  is  its 
illuminating  power.  The /line  between  effective  and 
lazy  listening  is  visibly  if  crudely  drawn.  With  his 
limitations  clearly  defined  and  his  spirit  of  conquest 
aroused,  each  student  may  consider  the  next  sermon 
or  lecture  that  he  hears,  not  a  leisured  interim,  but  a 
challenge." 

The  recitation  of  passages  learned  from  selections 
studied  is  excellent  practice.  It  is  advisable  to  commit 
to  memory  prose  as  well  as  poetry.  Speaking  contests 
may  occasionally  be  held.  I  was  present  at  such  a  con- 
test held  in  an  English  class  last  year.    The  pupils 


ORAL  AND   WRITTEN   EXPRESSION  79 

had  been  studying  President  Wilson's  war  speeches, 
and  at  the  end  of  their  study  they  proposed  to  com- 
mit to  memory  a  speech  and  deliver  it.  The  best 
among  the  speakers  were  chosen  to  deliver  their 
speeches  on  Flag  Day  before  the  whole  school.  Much 
interest  was  evoked  by  the  contest,  and  the  work  was 
as  good  as  any  I  have  ever  heard  in  oral  English.  The 
pupils  paid  close  attention  to  articulation,  enunciation, 
word  endings,  voice  production ;  and  the  practice  thus 
gained  was  of  inestimable  value.  The  delivery  of 
original  speeches  on  Liberty  Bonds  and  War  Savings 
Stamps  in  this  same  way  worked  the  same  result.  In- 
directly the  War  thus  helped  the  cause  of  oral  Eng- 
lish in  the  schools. 

Presentation  of  scenes  from  plays  studied  in  the 
Literature  class,  and  of  original  dramatizations  of  parts 
of  stories  read  gives  splendid  practice  in  oral  English. 
Because  of  the  natural  interest  in  "acting  out"  situa- 
tions, results  which  fail  to  be  precipitated  from  our 
best  efforts  in  all  other  oral  exercises  are  actually  ob- 
tainable in  this  form  of  oral  practice. 

Perhaps  the  most  practical  reason  for  stressing  oral 
English  in  the  composition  course  is  that,  in  the  words 
of  Lord  Bacon,  conference  maketh  a  ready  man. 
Practice  in  speaking  before  his  classmates  is  invaluable 
to  the  pupil  both  now  and  later  on.  It  develops  the 
ability  to  think  quickly,  and  to  express  thought  con- 
vincingly with  poise  and  self-possession,,  while  stand- 
ing and  facing  an  audience.  And  in  these  days  of  the 
rule  of  democracy  not  many  pupils  after  leaving  school 
will  escape  the  call  to  speak  to  their  fellow-men. 
Should  not  preparation  for  such  emergencies  now  be 
made  in  the  secondary  school? 


80  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

Before  closing  this  discussion,  a  troublesome  de- 
tail in  the  oral  English  work  should  be  mentioned. 
We  are  all  confronted  with  the  and  habit.  What  shall 
we  do  to  break  up  this  habit?  Induce  the  pupil  to  make 
a  conscious  effort  to  overcome  this  fault.  Tell  him 
to  stop  short  a  second  or  two  whenever  the  tempta- 
tion comes.  The  over-use  of  the  and  in  oral  reports  is 
really  a  time-seeking  process.  When  the  pupil  does 
not  know  what  to  say  next,  he  says  and.  If  he  will 
think  before  he  speaks,  much  of  his  desire  to  use  the 
word  will  disappear.  It  is  worth  while,  also,  to  have 
the  pupil  make  a  list  of  words  that  may  be  substituted 
for  and,  that  may  be  used  as  bridges  connecting  his 
chain  of  thought.  And  then  let  the  pupil  make  a 
conscious  effort  to  substitute  these  new  words  for  the 
old,  familiar  friend.  If  the  pupil  pursues  this  practice 
diligently,  it  will  not  be  long  before  he  will  show  some 
facility  in  the  use  of  these  "other"  words.  And  after 
a  while  such  usage  will  become  unconscious  and 
natural.  This  plan  has  been  tried  out  successfully  in 
more  than  one  instance. 

Another  detail.  Shall  we  interrupt  the  pupil  when 
he  is  "speaking  his  speech"?  The  notion  has  long 
prevailed  that  interruption  would  embarrass  the 
speaker,  cause  him  to  lose  the  thread  of  his  thought, 
utterly  destroy  spontaneity.  And  there  is  something 
in  this.  But  we  must  never  lose  sight  of  the  main 
purpose  of  our  study — progress  in  the  art  of  speaking 
correctly.  We  dare  not  pass  over  errors.  It  is  our 
business  to  teach.  And  so,  at  times,  it  may  become 
necessary  to  interrupt  with  tact.  And  we  must  remem- 
ber that  pupils  are  to  learn  something  each  day  about 


ORAL   AND    WRITTEN    EXPRESSION  81 

correct  speech.  Attention  must  be  called  to  errors. 
Correction  must  be  made  if  the  course  is  to  lead  to- 
ward our  goal.  Mere  talking  will  get  nowhere.  Talk- 
ing to  a  purpose  and  with  a  purpose  is  a  different 
story. 

11.    Public  Speaking 

Shall  our  high  schools  give  courses  in  public  speak- 
ing? Before  that  question  can  be  answered  it  would 
be  well  to  consider  the  purpose  of  speech-training  in 
a  public  high  school.  What,  at  bottom,  is  the  aim  of 
such  training?  Is  it  not,  after  all,  to  give  our  pupils 
such  command  of  their  speaking  ability  that  they  can 
say  what  they  want  to  say  directly^ and  effectively 
just  when  they  want  to  say  it?  The  basic  aim  then  is 
to  give  power  of  free  communication  of  thought 
through  the  medium  of  the  organs  of  speech.  What 
then  will  be  first  necessary,  even  to  approximate  such 
an  end?  Certainly,  knowledge  of  how  to  use  those 
organs  effectively.  Therefore,  as  before  stated,  some 
training  in  voice-making  and  using  is  essential.  This 
need  not  be — it  must  not  be — highly  technical.  But 
much  practice  should  be  given  in  tone-work  and 
enunciation.  Such  work  should  be  eminently  practical. 
Remember  that  the  power  of  speech  is  originally  ac- 
quired through  imitation.  And  just  so,  good  oral  Eng- 
lish must  become  a  habit  through  imitation.  Did  not 
Hamlet  say,  "Speak  the  speech  as  I  pronounced  it  to 
you,  trippingly,  on  the  tongue"?  Imitation  of  a  model 
is  a  way — one  might  almost  say  the  way — of  acquiring 
power  in  spoken  English.  And  who  is  to  be  the  model? 
The  regular  teacher  of  English  or  a  special  instructor? 


82  ENGLISH    PROBLEMS 

There  is,  of  course,  much  to  be  said  on  both  sides,  but 
the  logic  of  the  situation  points  to  the  regular  teacher. 
For  so,  the  teaching  of  English  and  the  teaching  of 
speech  are  not  divorced.  Do  we  dare  risk  a  separa- 
tion? Not  while  we  contend  that  the  teaching  of 
correct  English  by  practice  should  be  a  part  of  the 
teaching  of  every  subject  in  the  curriculum.  Sep- 
aration would  easily  weaken  our  case.  Every  high- 
school  pupil  should  get  definite,  daily  drill  in  the 
technic  of  speech.  And  all  of  us  must  be  ever  on 
guard  to  insist  upon  exact,  not  slovenly,  mechanics 
in  speech  drill.  Cooperation  of  every  member  of  the 
teaching  body  on  the  one  hand,  and  of  the  pupils  on 
the  other,  is  what  we  must  strive  for.  Better  Speech 
Week  must  become  the  Better  Speech  Daily.  It  must 
be  issued  every  twenty-four  hours,  a  Daily,  not  an 
Extra.  The  more  often  speech  rallies  can  be  held  now, 
the  better.  For  interest  must  not  be  spasmodic  in  this 
great  aim  of  teaching  English.  Better  speech  must 
become  habitual,  automatic.  When  the  Better  Speech 
Week  has  become  Better  Speech,  Day  by  Day,  not  the 
occasional  but  the  usual  proceeding,  will  not  the  teacher 
of  every  subject  in  the  school  curriculum  suddenly 
realize  that  his  burden  is  lessened  by  half?  Will  not 
every  graduate  of  our  high  schools  realize  then  that  his 
chances  of  success,  whether  he  enter  college  or  the 
world,  are  increased  fourfold? 

To  teach  our  pupils  to  express  themselves  in  good, 
clear,  accurate  English  informally,  in  conversation  with 
one  another  in  the  classroom  and  outside,  is  then  the 
basic  aim  of  an  oral  English  course.  A  supplementary 
aim,  as  before  stated,  should  be  to  give  the  pupil  ex- 


ORAL   AND    WRITTEN    EXPRESSION  83 

perience  in  speaking  before  his  fellows  in  the  class- 
room and  in  the  auditorium.  Methods  of  oral  English 
procedure  in  the  classroom  have  already  been  dis- 
cussed. Some  training  there  needs  must  be  in  adapting 
the  voice-power  of  the  pupil  to  the  larger  audience. 
But  our  present  socialized  recitations  are  fast  eradicat- 
ing the  timid  or  self-conscious  individual.  Such  a 
specimen  will  soon  be  a  rara  avis  among  us.  Hence  no 
special  work  is  necessary  in  this  direction.  All  things 
considered,  then,  training  in  oral  English  is  best  left 
with  the  regular  teacher  of  English.  Far  better  is  it, 
even  if  the  teacher  must  perchance  take  a  summer 
course  in  oral  English,  than  to  call  for  outside  aid  and 
thus  weaken  the  stand  of  the  English  teacher  and 
divorce  the  aims  of  the  course. 


FOR  FURTHER  THOUGHT 

1.  Suggest  devices  to  teach  the  art  of  intelligent  listening. 

2.  Discuss  the  value  of  having  pupils  close  their  books  while 
one  of  their  number  reads  aloud  to  the  class. 

3.  Suggest  ways  and  means  of  testing  the  listening  class. 

4.  Discuss  voice  training  in  the  high  school.  Should  the  effort 
be  to  train  for  the  impromptu  occasion  which  will  come  into 
the  life  of  every  pupil  or  for  more  formal  speech  or  oration? 
How  much  technical  voice  training  should  be  given  high-school 
students'?  Should  the  work  be  done  in  connection  with  the 
English  class  or  independently?  Should  there  be  a  director  of 
public  speaking? 

5.  Discuss  the  use  of  the  club  idea  as  a  means  of  socializing 
tKe  English  class. 

6.  Discuss  methods  of  socialization  as  suggested  by  Mr.  Gaston 
in  his  article,  "Social  Procedure  in  the  English  Classroom," 
The  English  Journal,  January,  1919. 

7.  Refute  the  statements  made  by  Mr.  Gaston. 

8.  Work  out  a  Better  Speech  Week  for  your  classes. 


84  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Crumpton,   C.   E.     The  Frohlem   of  Better  Speech.     Guide  for 

American  Speech  Week. 
Lewis,  C.  H.     American  Speech. 
The  English  Journal: 

Crumpton,    Claudia   E.      "A    Nation-Wide    Speech   Week," 

May,  1919. 
Drummond,  Alex  M.    "Plays  for  the  Time."    Editorial,  "The 
Speech  Campaign,"  September,  1919. 
The  Illinois  Bulletin: 

Andrews,  "W".  E.     "A  Study  of  the  Oral  Response  in  the 

High-School  Classroom,"  Februaiy,  1919. 
Bear,  Olive  M.     "Better  Speech  TVeek  in  Decatur,"  Febru- 
ary, 1919. 
Paul,  H.  G.    "Better  Oral  English,"  April,  1919. 
Rawlins,  Cora  M.    "Everj^-day  Problems  in  Spoken  English," 

January,  1919. 
Stratton,  Clarence  M.    "Speaking  of  Speech,"  March,  1919. 

THE  PROBLEM  OF  ^\TIITTEN  WORK 

If,  first  of  all,  in  a  composition  course  we  must  watch 
the  speech  of  our  pupils,  surely  next,  we  must  watch 
their  written  words.  Written  English  should  go  hand 
in  hand  with  oral.  Much  oral  practice  can  but  help 
the  written  work.  By  no  means,  however,  should  the 
written  theme  be  worked  over  in  class  orally  and  then 
reduced  to  writing.  Such  a  process  is  deadening.  It 
will  produce  a  stereotyped  written  product  of  no 
interest  to  anyone.  But  often  the  oral  work  may  be- 
come the  basis  for  the  written  work.  It  may  suggest 
allied  subjects. 

Now  let  us  examine  the  why,  the  how,  the  what,  and 
the  where  of  written  work  in  the  high-school  English 
course. 

Why  should  we  ask  students  of  composition  to  writo 
at  all?    The  answer  is  obvious.    To  prepare  them  for 


ORAL   AND    WRITTEN   EXPRESSION  85 

the  emergency  which  every  now  and  then  confronts 
them  of  being  obUged  to  communicate  their  thoughts 
about  a  given  subject  to  another  person  in  writing. 
The  instrument  of  such  communication  is  usually  the 
letter.  Hence,  letter-writing  practice  should  form  the 
major  part  of  written  composition  work  in  the 
secondary  schools.  However,  there  are  other  occasions 
in  the  life  of  the  pupil  that  call  for  written  expression 
of  thought,  and  there  will  be  occasions  later  on.  It  is 
the  duty  of  the  English  teacher  to  prepare  the  pupil 
for  such  occasions.  The  pupil  is  required  by  teachers 
of  other  subjects  to  write  reports  of  work  done  from 
time  to  time,  and  to  take  examinations  in  those  sub- 
jects. Prepare  the  boy  and  girl  to  meet  this  situation 
now,  and  they  will  be  able  to  face  other  responsibili- 
ties later  on  as  they  meet  them.  For  example:  In 
the  course  of  his  school  life  the  pupil  will  be  asked 
to  expound  principles  in  mathematics  and  science;  to 
explain  processes  in  the  laboratory,  the  shop,  and  the 
workroom;  to  give  the  story  of  a  period  in  history  or 
of  a  great  man's  life;  to  describe  plants  and  animals 
in  biology;  to  defend  policies  of  governments  past  and 
present;  to  make  idiomatic  translations  from  a  foreign 
tongue  into  English.  They  will  be  asked  to  answer 
questions  in  tests  given  in  all  their  subjects  of  study. 
That  is  why  the  teacher  of  composition  should  see  to  it 
that  the  pupil  learns  to  express  himself  in  writing 
which  shall  be  intelligent,  discriminating,  and  correct, 
whether  the  thought  to  be  expressed  requires  him  to 
tell  a  story,  to  make  a  picture,  to  explain,  or  to  con- 
vince. For  what  is  language  after  all,  but  a  tool?  It 
is  a  means  to  an  end.    When  we  shall  be  able  to  con- 


86  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

vince  the  teachers  in  other  departments  in  the  high- 
school  curriculum  that  the  English  composition  course 
exists  mainly  for  their  sakes  it  will  not  be  long  before 
we  shall  have  the  whole-hearted  cooperation  of  the 
entire  school  in  working  for  improvement  in  the  use 
of  the  mother  tongue  in  both  speech  and  writing. 
Last  of  all,  the  pupil  should  be  asked  to  write  because, 
in  the  words  of  Lord  Bacon,  "Writing  maketh  an  exact 
man/'  No  exercise  is  more  helpful  in  developing  ac- 
curacy than  writing  out  one's  thought.  By  all  means, 
every  little  while  let  the  pupil  put  his  thought  to  the 
acid  test  of  writing  it  out.  As  Mr.  Hitchcock  says, 
"Ink  and  whit^  paper  are  fearful  detectives  which  lay 
bare  in  ruthless  fashion  faults  which  escape  notice 
altogether  in  the  rose-tinted  half-light  of  rapid  conver- 
sation." Hence  in  the  composition  class  pupils  must 
write  as  well  as  talk. 

In  this  connection  the  revolutionary  view  Nicholas 
Murray  Butler  expressed  in  an  address  delivered  before 
the  Association  of  Preparatory  Schools  of  the  Middle 
States  and  Maryland  in  the  fall  of  1918  might  be 
noted.  He  regards  the  daily  theme  as  a  plague  of 
which  we  must  rid  ourselves  and  holds  that  English 
composition  should  be  taught  through  reading  rather 
than  through  writing.  In  reply  one  might  ask  a  ques- 
tion or  two.  Is  not  writing  an  art?  Has  not  every 
art  its  own  technic?  Can  technic  in  any  art  be  ac- 
quired except  through  practice?  Will  hearing  the 
greatest  musicians  interpret  the  works  of  the  masters 
make  an  artist  of  the  hearer? 

The  pupil  writes,  then,  in  order  to  communicate  his 
thoughts  to  others,  and  the  teacher  of  composition 


ORAL   AND   WRITTEN   EXPRESSION  87 

should  give  the  pupil  much  practice  in  this  method  of 
thought  communication.  But  he  should  not  ask  the 
pupil  to  write  unless  he  has  something  to  communicate 
and  someone  to  whom  he  wishes  to  express  his  thought. 
Only  when  the  pupil  feels  that  there  is  for  his  effort 
a  real  occasion,  a  real  purpose,  a  real  motive  will  he 
do  his  best.  Thoughts,  even  the  thoughts  of  a  pupil 
in  the  English  composition  class,  like  any  other  com- 
modity must  be  produced  for  the  purpose  of  consump- 
tion. There  should  be  a  consumer  other  than  the  fire 
or  the  waste-paper  basket  for  the  themes  our  pupils 
write.  That  consumer  is  the  pupil's  audience;  that 
audience  is  naturally  made  up  of  his  classmates.  The 
class  is  the  theme  writer's  reading  public,  as  Mr.  S.  A. 
Leonard  has  so  well  said  in  The  English  Leaflet  for 
April,  1918.  The  pupil  should  write  for  his  audience, 
expecting  a  definite  reaction  from  his  audience.  Then 
the  work  becomes  dynamic  and  of  real  developing 
power.  Occasionally,  his  audience  may  be  enlarged,  as 
when  he  writes  for  the  school  magazine  or  prepares  a 
paper  for  the  entertainment  or  instruction  of  the  whole 
school  in  the  assembly  hall,  or  when  the  members  of 
one  section  challenge  those  of  another  group  to  debate 
a  given  subject. 

Now  how  shall  we  give  the  pupil  such  command  of 
the  language  as  will  enable  him  to  use  it  accurately 
and  even  fluently  in  his  written  work  in  other  classes 
and  on  other  occasions  than  on  the  oft-dreaded  one  of 
theme  day  in  the  English  class?  Surely  not  by  having 
his  theme  work  in  the  composition  class  based  wholly 
or  even  largely  on  topics  suggested  by  other  depart- 
ments of  the  school,  though  these  are  of  value  once  in 


88  ENGLISH   PROBLE]!^S 

a  while.  How  shall  we  develop  the  habit  of  clear, 
accurate  written  expression,  so  that  the  pupil's  written 
reaction  to  a  given  situation  shall  be  spontaneous, 
ready,  easy,  and  correct?  This  can  be  accomplished 
only  through  a  thorough  vitalization  of  the  subject  of 
theme-writing,  and  this  in  turn  can  be  accomplished 
only  by  intelligent  motivation  of  subjects  to  which  the 
pupils  are  asked  to  react  in  writing. 

What  shall  our  pupils  write  about,  then?  It  is  a 
commonplace  to  say  that  subjects  for  themes  should 
be  chosen  from  the  pupil's  own  experience,  that  the 
pupil  should  write  about  what  he  knows.  We  must 
expand  the  definition  of  experience,  however,  to  em- 
brace imaginary,  as  well  as  real,  experience.  It  should 
include  the  dream  life  as  well  as  the  real  life  of  the 
child. 

But  the  selection  of  theme  topics  is  not  an  easy  job. 
As  Mr.  Suzzallo  says,  "The  largest  single  problem  with 
which  the  teacher  has  to  deal  today  is  that  of  getting 
adequate  motivation  into  the  composition  period."^ 

A  composition  is  never  a  re-statement  of  facts 
gleaned  from  hearing  or  reading.  It  is  rather  a  re- 
compounding  of  these  elements  based  on  the  ex- 
perience real  or  imagined  of  the  pupil.  It  is  a  chemical 
union,  not  a  mechanical  mixture.  Stories  and  poems 
may  serve  as  points  of  departure.  But  they  should  be 
made  to  function  in  the  life  of  the  student.  For 
example,  after  a  pupil  has  read  and  enjoyed  such  a 
story  as  Stickeen,  instead  of  asking  him  to  tell  the 
story  in  his  own  words,  use  the  incident  as  a  stimula- 

1.  "Introduction"  to  English  Composition  4s  a'  Social  Problem, 
l^eonarcl. 


ORAL  AND   WRITTEN   EXPRESSION  89 

tion  of  the  pupil's  constructive  faculty.  Let  him  write 
the  story  of  some  remarkable  dog  that  he  himself  has 
owned,  or  let  him  make  up  a  dog  story  based  on  an 
incident  about  which  he  has  heard  his  father  or  other 
person  talk.  If  the  class  is  reading  Chaucer's  Prologue, 
let  the  assignment  be  a  trip  of  up-to-date  tourists  to 
visit  some  point  of  interest  in  the  pupil's  own  locality. 
For  example,  if  the  pupil  lives  in  Washington,  to  Mt. 
Vernon;  if  he  lives  in  New  York,  to  Grant's  tomb,  or 
up  the  Hudson  to  Tarrytown.  When  reading  Addison 
and  Steele,  let  the  pupils  write  a  Spectator  Paper  on 
some  modern  fad  or  foible.  When  studying  Concilia- 
tion with  America,  introduce  Burke  to  President 
Wilson  in  a  Houseboat  on  the  Styx  and  let  them  dis- 
cuss some  topic  of  the  day — and  so  on  and  on. 

School  and  class  interests  and  happenings  offer  a 
fertile  field  for  theme  topics:  the  last  football  game 
or  track  meet;  reasons  for  joining  the  dramatic  associa- 
tion or  debating  club;  a  report  of  the  school  assembly; 
appeals  for  support  of  school  enterprises,  such  as  the 
school  paper,  the  annual  lunch,  the  spring  play ;  reasons 
for  the  last  defeat  or  winning  the  championship,  etc. 

At  other  times  it  is  well  to  use  the  community  wel- 
fare motive  in  theme  writing.  Let  the  pupils  write  a 
paragraph  on  such  topics  as  Vacant  Lot  Gardens, 
Cleaning  Up  the  Alleys  of  Our  City,  Danger  of  Scatter- 
ing Papers  After  a  Picnic,  Necessity  of  Putting  Out 
Campfires  Before  Breaking  Camp. 

And  where  shall  the  writing  of  high-school  themes  be 
done?  As  a  rule,  in  the  classroom,  under  the  eye  of 
the  teacher.  This  procedure,  of  course,  necessitates 
Bhort  themes,  but  for  secondary  work  the  short  unit 


90  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

will  yield  far  better  results  than  the  long  one.  One 
advantage  of  class  writing  is  that  the  teacher  then  is 
sure  of  100%  genuineness  in  the  pupil^s  product — 
correction  of  errors  in  such  cases  deals  with  the  pupil's 
own  mistakes,  not  with  those  of  his  helpers.  Only 
rarely  in  the  upper  classes  should  long  themes  be  as- 
signed. 

Much  practice  on  the  sentence  in  relation  should 
be  given  in  the  junior  high  school  and  in  the  first  year 
of  the  senior  high  school.  Indeed  such  practice  should 
continue  throughout  the  course.  If  our  pupils  go  out 
from  our  high  schools  with  a  keenly  developed  sen- 
tence-sense they  will  be  equipped  with  a  powerful  in- 
strument for  explaining,  persuading,  and  convincing 
others  to  think  as  they  think  in  any  of  the  social  rela- 
tions of  life,  and  they  will  have  an  effective  weapon 
for  the  attack  on  social  problems  which  is  to  be  made 
in  the  language  of  the  written  brief  or  of  the  oral 
debate.  Hence,  in  the  language  of  aviation,  they  must 
be  given  thorough  ground  training  before  they  are 
allowed  the  privilege  of  flight. 

For  this  ground  training  a  good  exercise  is  the  ex- 
pansion of  a  topic  sentence  into  a  paragraph.  This 
may  be  done  sometimes  as  an  impromptu  exercise ;  at 
other  times  it  may  be  prepared  at  home  and  worked 
out  in  class  without  notes.    But  it  should  be  done  often. 

This  leads  us  to  a  consideration  of  two  questions. 
How  often  shall  pupils  write?  What  shall  we  do  with 
their  themes?  The  answer  to  the  first  question  de- 
pends upon  the  answer  to  the  second. 

What  shall  we  do  with  pupils'  themes?  They  should 
be  read  aloud  in  class.    The  pupil  understands  that  he 


ORAL  AND   WRITTEN   EXPRESSION  91 

is  writing  for  an  audience.  His  work  is  not  complete, 
then,  until  he  knows  the  reaction  of  his  audience.  The 
theme  is  produced  for  the  consumer,  and  the  legitimate 
consumer  is  the  class,  as  before  stated.  Also,  publicity 
is  a  powerful  stimulus  to  effort  and  ambition.  Pub- 
licity and  emulation  will  make  for  progress  in  theme 
writing. 

Reading  aloud  is  a  splendid  test  of  the  written  prod- 
uct as  to  definiteness.  Here  is  another  reason  why 
themes  should  be  read  to  the  class.  A  sentence  that 
must  be  read  twice  (granting  that  the  reading  is  intel- 
ligent) before  its  meaning  is  grasped  needs  reconstruc- 
tion. President  Wilson  tells  us  that  the  best  training 
in  English  he  ever  had  came  from  his  father,  to  whom 
he  read  aloud  everything  he  wrote  up  to  the  time  of 
his  death  in  1903.  He  was  intolerant  of-  vagueness. 
His  original  way  of  giving  advice  on  this  point  is  well 
worth  remembering.  ''Don't  shoot  at  your  meaning 
with  bird  shot  and  hit  the  whole  country  side;  shoot 
with  a  rifle  and  hit  the  thing  you  have  to  say."  That 
is  exactly  it.  "Hit  the  thing  you  are  going  to  say. 
Practice  until  your  aim  goes  straight  to  the  mark.  Have 
in  mind  your  mark."  This  we  must  urge  our  pupils  to 
do.    Hence  the  reading  of  themes  is  a  vital  matter. 

It  will  be  impossible,  of  course,  to  correct  every  bit 
of  writing  that  every  pupil  does.  The  teacher  knows 
this,  and  he  should  frankly  say  so  to  the  pupils.  But 
if  we  follow  the  method  of  correction  suggested  later 
on,  it  is  not  necessary,  indeed  it  is  not  advisable  that 
every  theme  should  pass  under  the  teacher's  eye.  How- 
ever, the  short  paragraphs  written  in  class  should  be 
read  aloud — all  of  them.     Five  or  six  may  then  be 


92  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

selected  for  correction  each  day.  This  selection  is 
usually  made  by  the  teacher ;  at  other  times  the  teacher 
may  allow  the  pupils  the  privilege  of  asking  that  their 
themes  be  chosen.  Of  course,  the  pupils  are  not  to 
know  beforehand  whose  themes  are  to  be  selected.  The 
same  boy's  theme  may  be  chosen  on  three  consecutive 
days.  Thus  the  pupils  will  be  held  up  to  their  best 
effort  and  will  not  grow  careless. 

Now,  how  often  shall  the  pupils  write?  We  all 
know  that  much  practice  makes  the  master.  A 
technic  in  written  or  oral  expression  can  be  acquired 
only  through  constant  drill  as  is  the  case  in  the  study 
of  music  or  art.  It  is  through  writing  or  speaking  that 
we  learn  to  write  or  speak,  just  as  it  is  through  play- 
ing or  drawing  that  we  learn  to  play  or  draw.  What 
shall  we  say  then?  How  often  shall  the  pupil  write? 
As  often  as  possible.  A  little  practice  outside  of  school 
every  day  is  advised.  For  this  purpose  the  pupil  might 
keep  a  school  diary  in  which  he  records  the  events  of 
the  day  in  his  classes,  in  assembly,  at  recess,  on  the 
way  to  and  from  school,  at  home.  Of  course,  there 
must  be  occasional  reading  of  Leaves  from  My  Diary 
or  the  work  will  not  function  properly. 

But  how  often  shall  the  pupil  write  for  class  con- 
sumption? As  often  as  is  compatible  with  social  treat- 
ment of  the  product  by  class  and  teacher.  This  may 
be  once  a  week  or  it  may  be  oftener.  In  other  words, 
an  important  factor  in  determining  the  frequency  of 
written  work  is  the  number  of  pupils  under  the 
teacher's  instruction.  It  goes  without  saying  that  an- 
other factor  is  the  need  of  the  individual  for  such 
practice.    Certain  members  of  a  class  always  need  more 


ORAL   AND    WRITTEN    EXPRESSION  93 

practice  in  writing  than  other  members.  Why  not  give 
them  written  work  oftener  than  their  companions  who 
need  it  less?  This,  it  would  seem,  is  the  only  commpn- 
sense  method  of  procedure  in  the  theme  class. 

The  composition  classroom  should  become  the 
language  workshop,  the  laboratory  for  resolving 
thoughts  into  sentences  and  themes.  Here  pupils  and 
teachers  should  work  together,  each  for  all  and  all  for 
each.  The  teacher  should  be  one  of  the  group — partici- 
pating in  all  the  activities  even  to  the  extent  of  occa- 
sionally contributing  a  theme. 

''If  a  particularly  difficult  moment  arrives  in  any 
composition  course,"  says  Mr.  Leonard,  ''a  sudden  in- 
crease of  interest  will  be  gained  if  the  teacher  promises 
to  have  a  theme  written  at  the  time  when  the  rest  are 
due,  said  theme  to  be  shuffled  with  the  rest  and 
criticized  among  the  others,  incognito.  Or,  after  read- 
ing a  set,  let  the  teacher  announce  the  fact  that  among 
the  essays  just  criticized  was  one  of  his  own.  Few 
things  stimulate  a  group  of  students  more  powerfully 
than  the  consciousness  that  the  teacher  is  still  study- 
ing— a  notion  usually  quite  remote  from  their  concep- 
tion of  the  functions  of  the  instructor.  In  the  under- 
graduate estimation,  the  teacher  has  learned,  has  writ- 
ten, has  translated,  and  is  now  a  director  and  inventor 
of  toil,  a  corrector  of  sentence-structure,  and  an  officer 
of  the  law.  I  shall  never  forget  what  a  deep  impres- 
sion was  made  once  upon  a  time,  when  the  teacher  of 
our  Vergil  class  read  us  a  metrical  translation  of  his 
own.  He  explained  that  since  he  had  asked  us  to  write 
one,  he  thought  it  only  fair  to  get  into  the  work  him- 
self.   It  takes  talent  and  courage  and  character  to  do 


94  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

that.  As  teachers,  we  hate  to  read  our  own  writings  to 
our  classes,  some  of  us  because  we  never  write,  and 
the  rest  because  we  think  that  they  will  think  that  we 
think  ourselves  model  literary  workmen;  which  we 
must'  rise  to  explain  that  we  aren't!  But  the  fact 
remains  that  there  is  no  more  effective  way  to  rouse  a 
fine  type  of  comradeship  over  the  daily  task  than  to 
do  one,  now  and  then,  oneself." 

To  sum  up.  The  following  points  are  to  be  noted 
in  a  consideration  of  theme  writing  in  the  secondary 
school: 

1.  Themes  should  be  written  for  the  purpose  of 

communicating  thought. 

2.  They    should    be    written    for    a    particular 

audience,  usually  the  class. 

3.  They  should  be  read  to  the  audience. 

4.  They  should  be  written  with  a  definite  aim. 

5.  They  should  be  intelligehtly  motivated. 

6.  They  should  be  brief. 

7.  They  should  usually  be  written  in  class. 

8.  They  should  be  written  as  often  as  is  com- 

patible with  intelligent  treatment  by  the 
teacher  and  the  social  group  for  whom  they 
are  produced. 

9.  They  should  be  written  more  often  by  some 

members  of  the  class  than  by  others. 

FOR  FURTHER  THOUGHT 

1.  Show  how  the  introduction  of  the  club  idea  will  vitalize 
the  written  work. 

2.  Discuss  the  importance  of  the  audience  factor  in  assigning 
written  work. 


ORAL   AND   WRITTEN   EXPRESSION  95 

3.  Discuss   the   short   versus   the   long   theme   for   high-school 
classes. 

4.  How  can  the  composition  class  be  socialized  ? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 
Klapper,  P.     The  Teaching  of  English,  Chapter  VIII. 
Leonard,    Sterling   Andrus.     English   Composition   As   a   Social 

Problem. 
Thomas,  C.  S.    The  Teaching  of  English  in  the  Secondary  School, 

Chapter  IV. 
Ward,  C.  H.     What  Is  English?  Chapter  IX. 
The  English  Journal: 

Mahin,  H.  0.     "Composition  in  the  Open,"  February,  1917. 
McDonald,  L.  H.     "Preparation  for  Assignment  of  Compo- 
sition Subjects,"  April,  1916. 
McDonald,  L.  H.    "A  Method  in  Assigning  Theme  Subjects," 

November,  1917. 
Parkinson,  Laura  D.    "Variety  in  Composition  Assignment," 

June,  1918. 
Scott,  Frank  W.    "The  Relation  of  Composition  to  the  Rest 

of  the   Curriculum,"   October,   1918. 
Smith,  M.  E.    "Those  Long  Themes,"  May,  1916. 
The  English  Leaflet: 

Haworth,    I.    M.      "A    Possible    Outline    for    a    Course   in 

Freshman  Composition,"  May,  1917. 
Jenness,  Mary  E.     "Cooperative  Fiction,"  December,  1916. 
Leonard,  Arthur  W.    "Themes  for  a  Reading  Public,"  April, 

1918. 
Shute,   Katherine  H.     "An   Effort  to   Secure   Sincerity  in 

Composition,"  December,  1918. 
Ward,  C.  H.     "Defending  Camelot,"  October,  1916. 
The  Illinois  Bulletin: 

Fox,  Fred  Gates.    "Keeping  Alive  in  Composition,"  January, 
1919. 


THE  PROBLEM  OF  THE  LETTER 

Since  the  only  real  demand  for  writing  in  the  life  of 
the  high-school  student  outside  of  school  is  in  connec- 
tion with  the  writing  of  letters  to  friends  and  relatives, 


96  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

it  is  all  important  that  his  high-school  English  com- 
position course  should  help  him  to  acquire  in  some 
small  degree  the  art  of  letter  writing.  Letter  writing 
is  an  art  and  should  be  so  presented  to  the  pupil. 
Hence  the  most  intelligent  as  well  as  the  most  interest- 
ing point  of  departure  in  a  letter-writing  course  is  to 
read  to  the  class  a  number  of  letters  written  by  famous 
men  and  women:  the  letters  of  Lewis  Carroll,  Robert 
Louis  Stevenson,  Thomas  Henry  Huxley,  Louisa  M. 
Alcott,  for  example.  After  hearing  these  letters  read 
and  talking  about  them,  the  pupils  may  be  asked  to 
write  letters  of  their  own. 

The  following  points  should  be  insisted  upon:  (1) 
the  letter  should  be  interesting;  (2)  it  should  be 
courteous;  (3)  it  should  be  adapted  to  the  one  to  whom 
it  is  written. 

The  purpose  for  which  the  friendly  or  social  letter 
is  written  should  be  clearly  impressed  upon  the  pupils. 
They  should  understand  that  the  friendly  letter  is 
written  for  the  purpose  of  communicating  with  those 
who  are  not  near  at  hand,  in  just  the  same  way  as 
if  they  were  present.  It  takes  the  place  of  a  call,  a 
visit,  or  a  social  half  hour.  Hence  the  writer  must 
make  himself  interesting  and  agreeable.  He  should 
write  as  if  he  were  talking  intimately  with  his  friend. 
He  should  never  give  the  impression  that  he  is  writing 
in  a  hurry,  or  from  a  sense  of  duty.  Much  of  the  com- 
position work  may  be  thrown  into  the  form  of  the 
letter.  But  never  should  the  letter  form  be  used  as 
the  mere  framework  of  the  exercise.  Content  as  well 
as  form  must  be  adapted  to  the  letter-idea.  And  it 
can  be  done  and  done  acceptably. 


ORAL  AND   WRITTEN   EXPRESSION  97 

We  can  formulate  three  types  of  the  friendly  letter 
which  pupils  should  practice  until  they  gain  a  measure 
of  proficiency.  First,  there  is  the  'Thank  you,"  the 
"Bread-and-Butter"  type  of  letter;  next,  there  is  the 
"Story"  letter;  and  then,  the  letter  of  directions,  ex- 
planations, or  excuse. 

The  pupils  should  write  letters  and  write  them  often. 
Perhaps  in  this  way  the  habit  of  letter  writing  may  be 
established,  and  the  American  youth  may  lose  some 
of  his  inherited  dislike  for  this  method  of  communi- 
cating thought.  As  far  as  possible,  real  occasions 
should  furnish  the  motives  to  letter  writing.  The 
pupil  may  write  a  letter  to  a  friend  out  of  town,  in- 
viting him  to  the  spring  games,  the  school  play,  the 
inter-high-school  debate.  He  must  realize  that  it  is 
his  duty  in  such  a  letter  to  make  the  one  to  whom  he 
is  writing  feel  that  the  trip  will  be  worth  while. 

Again,  he  may  write  to  a  pupil  who  is  out  of  school 
on  account  of  illness,  recounting  school  news  that 
would  interest  the  sick  pupil.  Many  other  events  in 
the  school  life  of  the  pupil  may  be  made  to  serve  the 
purpose  of  letter  writing. 

Letters  may  also  be  written  by  members  of  one 
school  to  members  of  another  school  when  there  is 
anything  of  imiuediate  interest  which  cannot  be  con- 
veniently communicated  orally.  They  may  be  written 
by  the  school  children  of  one  city  to  the  school  children 
of  another  city.  During  the  war  ./lany  letters  were 
written  by  American  boys  and  girls  to  the  school 
children  of  France  in  reply  to  letters  sent  to  them.  In 
all  such  exercises,  however,  the  desire  of  the  pupil  to 
write  or  not  to  write  should  be  the  determining  factor. 


98  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

Otherwise  the  letter  will  be  valueless,  both  as  a  com- 
position exercise  and  as  a  social  act. 

In  letter-writing  exercises,  the  imagination  of  the 
writer  may  be  appealed  to  with  advantage.  And  what- 
ever can  develop  the  imagination  of  our  boys  and  girls 
is  of  great  educational  worth.  For  instance,  imperson- 
ating a  character  in  the  story  or  poem  which  the 
pupils  are  studying,  and  writing  a  letter  to  another 
person  in  the  book,  is  an  interesting  adventure.  And 
the  marvel  is  that  almost  always  the  local  color  is 
consistently  observed  by  the  pupil.  He  lives  in  the 
times  of  his  character,  and  the  language  he  uses  is  the 
language  of  those  times,  quite  naturally,  just  as  a 
matter  of  course.  Give  the  pupil  a  definite  situation; 
let  him  see  clearly  with  his  mind's  eye  all  the  factors 
in  the  case;  then  test  his  reaction.  For  instance,  ask 
the  pupils  to  write  a  letter  to  a  small  boy,  telling  him 
about  something  that  would  interest  him  in  a  way 
that  he  will  understand.  The  following  is  an  illustra- 
tion of  this  method: 


1652  Park  Road 
Washington,  D.  C. 

January  15,  1920 
Dear  Harry, 

I  know  you  will  have  a  good  laugh  when  you  read  what 
happened  to  us  the  other  night.  Mother  had  gone  out,  leaving 
Sis,  Dan,  and  me  alone.  Dan  undressed  in  the  living  room  by 
the  fire  and  went  across  the  hall  to  go  to  bed.  No  sooner  had 
he  passed  the  door,  than  he  gave  a  bloodcurdling  scream  and 
came  back,  looking  as  if  he  had  seen  a  ghost.  That  was  enough 
for  Sis  and  me.  We  jumped  up,  got  behind  the  table,  and  began 
to  scream  at  the  top  of  our  lungs.  As  nobody  came  to  our  aid, 
I  ran  out  into  the  yard  and  met  the  man  who  lives  next  door 


ORAL   AND   WRITTEN   EXPRESSION  99 

hurrying  to  us  bareheaded,  holding  a  big  pistol  in  his  hand. 
Then  we  calmed  down  long  enough  to  ask  Dan  what  he  had  seen, 
and  he  tearfully  informed  us  that  there  was  a  big  black  cat 
in  the  hall! 

Now  wouldn't  you  like  to  know  what  poor  Mr.  Man-next-door 
thought? 

Lovingly, 

May 


Here  are  two  good  story  letters  written  by  school 
girls:  , 


114  Pennington  Avenue 

Passaic,  New  Jersey 

February  15,  1920 

Dear  Margery, 

They  say  I'm  getting  too  old  to'  play  with  dolls  now,  but  I 
don't  mind  what  anyone  thinks,  for  I  have  seen  the  play 
"Racketty-Packetty  House,"  and  it's  wonderful !  Do  you  remem- 
ber how  we  used  to  pretend  that  our  dolls  would  come  to^life 
at  night  when  we  were  all  asleep  and  have  a  good  time  just 
as  we  did?  Well,  Mrs.  Burnett,  the  lady  who  wrote  the  play, 
must  have  done  the  same  thing  when  she  was  a  little  girl,  for  do 
you  know,  every  single  doll  in  the  play  comes  to  life. 

But  first  r  must  begin  at  the  very  beginning  and  tell  you  aU 
about  the  whole  play.  You  see  there  was  a  little  girl  who  had 
an  old  doll-house  full  of  the  loveliest,  old-fashioned,  ragged  dolls 
in  the  world.  But  a  great  prifteess  was  coming  to  see  her,  and 
so  the  little  girl's  mother  bought  her  a  brand  new  doll-house  with 
dolls  in  it  all  dressed  up  like  kings  and  queens  and  lords  and 
ladies.  The  little  girl  called  her  new  toy  "Tidy  Castle,"  and 
the  old  one  just  "Racketty-Packetty  House"  because  it  was  all 
falling  to  pieces.  The  little  girl's  nurse  wanted  to  bum 
"Racketty-Packetiy  House"  so  that  the  princess  would  not  see 


100  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

it.  But  a  good  fairy  queen,  whose  name  was  Silverbell,  hid 
it  behind  the  door,  and  saved  it  from  the  nurse. 

The  strange  thing  was  that  the  princess  found  the  shabby  old 
doll-house  and  liked  it  much  better  than  the  brand  new  "Tidy 
Castle." 

When  it  was  night,  all  the  dolls  came  to  life.  I  could  fill 
sheets  of  paper  telling  you  about  their  antics — ^how  Peter  Piper 
from  "Racketty-Packetty  House"  fell  in  love  with  the  beautiful 
Lady  Patsy  of  "Tidy  Castle" ;  how  everybody  in  "Tidy  Castle" 
got  sick,  and  the  "Racketty-Packetties"  had  to  come  over  and 
put  poultices  on  their  heads  till  all  the  pain  had  gone;  how 
haughty  all  the  Castle  dolls  were  except  pretty  Lady  Patsy;  and 
oh,  a  lot  of  other  things  about  them!  But  everything  came  out 
all  right  with  the  help  of  Queen  Silverbell  and  Peter  Piper  and 
Lady  Patsy — but  Margery,  do  go  and  see  the  play  for  yourself ! 

Your  friend, 

Annette 


Washington,  D.  C. 

November  5,  1919 

Dear  Anna, 

I  do  not  want  to  write  you  anything  else  about  Central  High 
School;  I  suppose  you  are  already  tired  of  hearing  me  sing  its 
praises.  Let  me  tell  you,  then,  about  a  little  school  of  my  very 
own. 

The  sessions  in  this  school  are  held  twice  a  week  at  the  home 
of  my  two  little  pupils.  Jack  and  Sarah  Clark.  I  teach  them 
Russian  and  call  them  Vanya  and  Sara.  Vanya  is  seven  and 
a  half  years  old  and  Sara  is  five.  Now  don't  be  surprised! 
Little  tots  as  they  are,  they  are  learning  to  speak  and  even  to 
read  and  write  Russian,  while  I  am  learning  to  teach  children. 

As  I  said,  I  am  only  learning  to  teach  them,  and  I  find  it 
diflBcult.  On  the  one  hand,  it  is  easier  to  teach  a  foreign 
language  to  children  than  to  grown-ups,  because  they  repeat  the 
words  and  imitate  the  accent  more  readily.    On  the  other  band, 


ORAL  AND   WRITTEI^'I3-^I>RBSSJ0,Krt  f,f  ^^H 

they  are  hard  to  deal  with.  I  have  to  keep  them  constantly 
interested;  otherwise  they  simply  refuse  to  learn  anything.  It 
would  be  absurd  for  me  to  give  them  a  vocabulary  to  learn  by 
heart,  when  they  cannot  sit  still  and  study,  read,  or  write  for 
more  than  ten  minutes.  Therefore,  I  spend  most  of  the  lesson 
playing  Russian  games  with  them. 

Here,  for  instance,  is  one  of  our  games:  several  objects  are 
placed  on  the  table,  a  pencil,  a  blotter,  a  toy  Hallowe'en  pumpkin, 
a  shell.  I  name  the  things  in  Russian.  Then  Vanya  and  Sara 
shut  their  eyes,  while  I  take  away  one  object.  Wheh  I  have 
hidden  it,  they  open  their  eyes  and  tiy  to  name  in  Russian,  as 
quickly  as  they  can,  the  missing  thing.  If  Sara  names  the  thing 
first,  it  is  her  turn  to  hide  something,  while  Vanya  and  I  close 
our  eyes. 

There  is  another  game,  which  you  must  know,  if  you  remember 
how  we  played  in  the  Alexandrovsky  Park,  years  ago.  It  is  the 
game  of  King.  Vanya  sits  down  on  the  sofa,  surrounds  him- 
self with  cushions,  and  folds  his  arm^  majestically.  Sara  and  I 
go  out  in  the  next  room  where  he  cannot  see  us,  and  dance  there. 
Then  we  present  ourselves  before  the  King  with  bows,  and  hold 
the  following  conversation  in  Russian : 

^'Good  day.  King!" 

"Good  day,  children.     Where  bave  you  b^n?" 

"In  the  parlor." 

"What  were  you  doing?" 

We  go  tlirough  the  motions  of  dancing. 

"You  danced!"  and  His  Majesty  jumps  up  and  rushes  madly 
after  us,  amidst  shrieks  of  laughter.  If  he  catches  Sara,  she 
succeeds  him  to  the  throne;  if  he  catches  me,  I  am  Queen.  And 
so  on.  This  game  is  the  children's  favorite,  and  it  is  useful, 
too,  because.it  gives  them  opportunity  to  learn  verbs  which,  in 
any  language,  are  much  harder  to  learn  than  other  parts  of 
speech. 

They  are  bright  little  things,  and  seem  to  enjoy  these  lessons. 
Gn  the  whole,  my  school*  is  interesting,  I  think.  Don't  you, 
Anna? 

With  love  to  Lucy  and'  Bernard,  I  am 

Yours  affectionately, 

Eugenia 


^^2  :/ii;i  :•'/:[;  English  problems 

A  correct  form  for  heading,  salutation,  and  com- 
plimentary close  should  be  chosen  by  the  class  and 
should  thereafter  be  adhered  to.  No  letter  should  be 
accepted  by  the  teacher  which  falls  below  100%  in  the 
matter  of  form. 

A  standard  business  form  should  also  be  adopted  by 
all  departments  of  the  school  and  insisted  upon  in.  all 
business  communications.  In  this  case  again  100% 
correctness  only  must  be  accepted.  School  interests 
may  furnish  the  motivation  for  much  business  letter 
practice.  For  instance,  correspondence  with  football, 
baseball,  and  basketball  teams  arranging  dates  and 
other  details  of  games ;  challenges  sent  to  other  schools 
for  debate,  and  further  correspondence  concerning  the 
question,  the  judges,  the  choice  of  sides,  and  other  mat- 
ters. Such  correspondence  furnishes  many  occasions 
for  practice.  Wherever  possible,  let  the  pupils  deal 
with  real  situations  in  their  practice  in  business 
correspondence  as  well  as  social  letter  writing. 

By  all  means,  in  a  letter-writing  course  let  the  pupil 
study  the  necessary  postal  instructions.  He  should 
understand  the  classification  of  mail  matter  into  first 
class,  second  class,  and  third  class;  he  should  learn 
postal  rates,  domestic  and  foreign;  he  should  know 
what  countries  belong  to  the  Postal  Union;  he  should 
understand  the  rural  free  delivery  system;  the  parcel 
post.  He  should  be  given  practice  in  the  classroom  in 
wrapping  packages  for  mailing;  he  should  learn  how 
to  address  and  stamp  such  packages ;  he  should  under- 
stand where  he  must  place  Christmas  and  Red  Cross 
stamps.  He  should  be  impressed  with  the  necessity 
of  early  mailing  at  Christmas  time.   All  this  knowl- 


ORAL   AND    WRITTEN   EXPRESSION  103 

edge  he  can  fina  in  pamphlets  issued  by  the  local 
post  office  department.  These  pamphlets  may  be  had 
'on  demand.  It  is  advised  that  every  student  in  every 
high  school  possess  himself  of  one  of  these. 

And  finally,  let  us  never  forget  that  a  letter-writing 
course  is  a  failure  unless  it  actually  gives  the  pupil  the 
habit  of  addressing  all  mail  matter  in  a  clear,  legible 
hand,  with  absolute  accuracy  in  the  matter  of  the 
address  of  both  sender  and  receiver.  Twelve  million 
pieces  of  mail  went  to  the  Dead  Letter  Office  during 
the  year  1915  because  of  errors  of  the  public.  Let  us 
do  our  bit  in  reducing  this  number.  Let  us  help  to 
educate  the  public  in  this  respect.  Then,  indeed,  we 
can  feel  that  our  letter-writing  course  has  not  been 
in  vain. 

FOR  FURTHER  THOUGHT 

1.  Discuss  the  relative  amount  of  time  that  should  be  devoted 
to  letter  writing  in  the  high-school  composition  class. 

2.  Discuss  ways  and  means  of  vitalizing  the  study  of  letter 
writing. 

3.  Discuss  the  part  that  accuracy  plays  in  a  course  in  letter 
writing. 

4.  Make  a  list  of  postal  regulations  that  should  be  taught  in 
such  a  course. 

5.  Enum-erate  the  essential  facts  that  should  be  taught  about 
mailing  packages. 

6.  How  can  practice  in  letter  writing  grow  out  of  the  study  of 
literature? 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Dye,  C.    Letters  and  Letter  Writing. 

Goldwasser,   I.    E.     Method   and  Methods   in   the    Teaching   of 
English  (Chapter  on  Letters), 


104  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

The  English  Journal : 

Aydelotte,  Frank.    "By  Means  of  Letters,"  March,  1917. 

Bidwell,  Alice  T.  "A  Course  in  Letter  Writing,"  Novem- 
ber, 1913. 

Bridgman,  Walter  R.  "A  Competition  in  Letter  Writing," 
December,  1913. 

Clapp,  J.  M.  "The  Better  Business  Letters  Movement," 
April,  1918. 

Phillips,  M.  A.  "Real  Business  Correspondence,"  February, 
1918. 

Piatt,  Frank  R.  "An  Inter-Class  Letter-Writing  Contest," 
R.  T.,  October,  1914. 

"Report  of  the  Committee  on  the  Economy  of  Time,"  Feb- 
ruary, 1919. 

Harper's  Magazine: 

Eitel,  E.  H.  "A  Poet  and  His  Child  Friends,"  December, 
1917.  "A  Poet's  Letters  to  Children"  (J.  W.  Rilev), 
May,  1918. 

Collections  of  Letters  : 

Benham,  A.  R.    Specimen  Letters. 

Briggs,^  T.  H.     A  Laboratory  Manual  of  Letters. 

Center,  S.  S.     Selected  Letters. 

Cook,  G.  S.     Specimen  Letters. 

Coult,  M.    Letters  from  Many  Pens. 

Dye,  C.     Letters  and  Letter  Writing. 

Feuss,  C.  M.     Selected  English  Letters. 

Greenlaw,  E.    Familiar  Letters. 

Roosevelt,  T.  R.    Letters  to  His  Children. 


THE  PROBLEM  OF  THEME  CORRECTING 

Pupil-responsibility  is  the  keynote  to  the  effective 
correction  of  written  work.  As  before  suggested,  the 
pupil  should  take  stock  of  his  assets  from  time  to  time. 


ORAL  AND  WRITTEN  EXPRESSION  105 

In  his  stock-book  he  should  keep  a  list  of  points  he  has 
learned;  he  should  also  keep  a  list  of  his  habitual 
mistakes.  Let  him  acquire  the  habit  of  consulting  both 
of  these  lists  before  preparing  any  exercise.  Hold 
him  strictly  accountable  for  what  he  has  learned,  and 
encourage  him  to  make  heroic  efforts  to  reduce  the 
list  of  his  peculiar  misusages.  The  pupil's  paper  when 
passed  in  should  be  correct  as  far  as  his  study  has  gone. 
All  careless  mistakes  are  to' be  discovered  and  corrected 
by  the  pupil  before  he  turns  in  his  paper.  Hence  he 
should  always  be  allowed  time  for  careful  re-reading 
or  rather  proof-reading  of  his  theme  before  passing 
it  in.  Mistakes  are  often  thus  discovered  and 
remedied.  In  the  event  of  any  careless  errors  in 
spelling,  grammar,  or  sentence  structure  appearing  in 
the  finished  product,  let  them  remain  untouched  by 
the  teacher,  who  promptly  returns  the  paper.  It  is 
then  the  pupil's  business  to  discover  and  correct  such 
errors  immediately.  Only  when  he  realizes  that  we 
are  thoroughly  in  earnest  about  holding,  him  re- 
sponsible will  he  become  active  in  the  elimination  of 
his  faults.  Carelessness  must  not  be  tolerated.  A 
serious  attitude  toward  his  work  must  be  demanded  by 
the  teacher.  And  we  teachers  must  stop  doing  the 
pupil's  work  for  him. 

The  practice  of  giving  every  theme  two  marks,  one 
for  form  and  one  for  content  or  matter,  has  been  found 
productive  of  results.  This  is  especially  true  if  the 
pupil  is  held  to  100%  in  form  before  the  theme  as  a 
whole  is  rated  satisfactory.  By  "form,'*  of  course,  is 
meant  the  observance  of  those  formal  principles  of 


106  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

writing  which  the  pupil,  under  his  own  statement  in 
his  stock-book,  is  bound  to  respect. 

Until  we  insist  on  more  than  an  approximation  of 
the  correct  form  we  may  not  hope  to  develop  in  our 
pupils  that  feeling  for  accuracy  which  is  so  important 
a  part  of  the  modern  man's  equipment.  What  we  in- 
sist upon  getting  from  our  pupils  we  will  get. 

Now  and  then  class  criticism  of  themes  is  profitable. 
A  theme-correcting  day  is  set.  As  many  papers  as 
possible  are  read  and  discussed  by  the  class,  the 
criticism  being  led  and  supervised  by  the  teacher. 
Those  pupils  whose  papers  are  corrected  in  class  are 
checked  off  the  teacher's  notebook.  On  the  next  cor- 
responding day  another  group  of  pupils  comes  under 
class  criticism,  and  so  on  until  the  work  of  each  pupil 
is  discussed  in  class. 

But  the  conference  method  of  correction  is  by  far 
the  most  effective  of  all.  One  conference  period  with 
a  pupil  about  his  work  is  worth  twenty  red-inked  or 
blue-penciled  themes  returned  to  him.  The  confer- 
ence period  is  indeed  an  integral  part  of  the  composi- 
tion course.  Hence,  conference  days  should  be  held 
every  little  while.  Of  course,  in  a  large  class  it  is  im- 
possible to  see  everyone  during  a  conference  period. 
But  a  substitute  is  suggested.  Divide  the  class  into 
groups;  appoint  the  brighter  pupils  as  teacher  assist- 
ants. Let  them  go  over  the  work  of  the  slower  pupils 
with  the  pupils,  bringing,  of  course,  any  debated  point 
to  headquarters  for  settlement. 

The  conference,  in  some  form,  is  the  only  method  of 
theme  correcting  that  really  makes  an  impression,  that 


ORAL  AND   WRITTEN   EXPRESSION  107 

is  really  worth  while;  it  establishes  the  right  relation 
between  pupil  and  teacher.  The  pupil  feels  that  he  is 
an  individual  to  the  teacher,  that  the  teacher  knows 
him  from  his  fellows.  His  good  points  are  appre- 
ciated and  his  failings  pointed  out.  The  human  touch, 
possible  only  under  the  conference  system,  clothes  the 
subject  with  new  interest  for  the  pupil  and  incites  him 
to  greater  effort. 

An  interesting  form  of  the  conference  method  of 
correcting  themes  has  been  adopted  by  the  University 
High  School  in  Madison,  Wisconsin.  Themes  are  cor- 
rected entirely  by  means  of  the  individual  conference. 
The  teacher  waits  until  he  has  collected  from  four  to 
six  themes  of  a  certain  individual.  Then  he  goes  over 
these  carefully,  noticing  especially  habitual  misusages. 
On  his  record  sheets  he  enters  the  peculiar  failings  of 
this  pupil;  then  he  calls  him  for  the  conference.  The 
pupil  is  shown  his  papers  and,  where  possible,  is  led  to 
discover  his  errors.  He  is  told  in  what  respects  he  needs 
to  watch  himself  and  is  then  sent  away  to  correct  his 
errors.  He  is  instructed  to  bring  a  short  but  exact 
report  of  the  conference  at  his  next  summons.  If  at 
the  next  conference  the  pupil  repeats  the  same  mis- 
takes, the  teacher  refuses  to  correct  the  theme.  In- 
stead, he  returns  the  work  for  re-writing.  The  danger 
of  this  scheme  is  that  the  pupil  may  lose  interest  in 
his  theme  before  the  conference  period  is  called.  The 
sooner  the  paper  is  discussed  after  it  has  been  written 
the  greater  will  be  the  good  derived  from  the  con- 
ference. 


108        .  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

FOR  FURTHER  THOUGHT 

1.  Compare  the  "red  ink"  method  of  correcting  themes  with 
the  personal  conference. 

2.  Discuss  prevision   versus   revision   in   pupils'   theme   work. 

3.  Give  arguments  for  and  against  pupil  correction  of  themes. 

4.  When  is  cooperative  work  by  the  class  of  most  value  in 
theme  correcting? 

5.  Devise  a  group  system  of  theme  correcting. 

6.  How  far  should  the  teacher  go  in  indicating  errors  in  the 
written  work  handed  in? 

7.  Discuss  the  value  of  having  the  pupil  proof-read  his  theme 
before  handing  it  in. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Thomdike,  E.  L.    Education,  A  First  Book,  pages  214-219. 
The  English  Journal: 

Cope,  Pauline.  "A  Second  Experiment  in  Correcting  Eng- 
lish," February,  1916. 

Cross,  Allen.  "Weighing  the  Scales"  (A  summary  of  the 
various  methods),  Vol.  VI,  p.  183,  March,  1917. 

Cutler,  F.  W.  "More  Uses  of  the  Conference,"  Round  Table, 
November,  1916. 

Leonard,  S.  A.  "CoiTection  and  Criticism  of  Composition 
Work,"  November,  1916. 

McCarty,  Ivucy  S.  "The  Game  of  Correct  English,"  Febni- 
ary,  1919. 

Orr.  C.  I.  "A  Revolt  and  Its  Consequences,"  November, 
1914. 

Pafford,  Harvey  E.  "Grading  Composition,"  Round  Table, 
April,  1916. 

Routh,  James.  "A  Method  of  Grading  English  Composi- 
tion," May,  1916. 

Thompson,  Stith.  "Notebook  System  of  Theme  Correction," 
January,  1917. 

Walker,  Francis  I.  "The  Laboratory  System  in  English," 
September,  1917. 


ORAL   AND    WRITTEN    EXPRESSION  100 

The  English  Leaflet: 

Hitchcock,  Alfred  M.     "A  Composition  on  Red  Ink"   (Re- 
printed from  No.  72),  May,  1919. 


MEASUREMENT  OF  RESULl'S 

This  is  the  age  of  scientific  method,  the  age  of  exact 
measurement,  and  this  method  is  being  tried  out  in 
education  as  well  as  in  other  fields.  The  attempt  is 
being  made  to  establish  a  fixed  standard  of  measure- 
ment in  the  matter  of  English  themes,  and  then  to 
apply  the  measurement  to  pupils'  products.  This  has 
been  done  in  a  number  of  experiments.  Various  scales 
have  been  used  for  weighing  and  considering  pupils' 
work.  But  the  fact  remains  that  not  yet  has  there 
been  found  a  satisfactorily  uniform  standard.  And  the 
reason  lies  in  the  nature  of  the  case.  Appreciation  of 
another's  thought  is  an  entirely  individual  matter.  No 
two  estimates  will  ever  be  exactly  the  same  on  the 
same  theme.  Literature,  even  that  produced  by  our 
girls  and  boys,  is  an  art  product,  and  must  be  judged 
by  the  canons  of  art.  We  can,  however,  agree  upon 
erecting  a  standard  for  certain  points,  and  we  can  in- 
sist that  that  standard  should  be  100%  correct  and 
allow  of  no  variation.  Pupils  should  be  taught  essen- 
tials; they  should  be  held  responsible  for  a  few  things 
at  a  time,  but  they  should  be  held  responsible  for 
100%  correctness  in  those  things. 

Mark  each  composition  on  two  points,  form  and 
content.  If  we  demand  that  the  form  shall  be  per- 
fect, we  shall  get  perfect  form.     For  what  we  con- 


110  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

sistently  and  persistently  demand  of  our  pupils,  that 
we  get.  As  to  content,  there  must  be  intelligent 
thought  behind  the  phrase,  or  the  phrase,  be  it  ever  so 
neat,  is  worthless.  The  pupil  must  become  habituated 
to  the  idea  that  thought  controls  structure  and  that 
the  structure  must  be  judged  by  the  thought-com- 
pelling expression  in  just  the  way  given.  A  fine  fitness 
must  be  felt  by  the  writer  and  the  reader  alike  be- 
tween the  thought  and  its  expression.  This  would 
do  much  to  rid  us  of  the  fine  frenzy  we  so  often  find 
between  the  two.  The  standard  for  form  should  be 
correctness  in  the  mechanics  of  expression,  spelling, 
grammar,  idiom;  the  standard  for  the  content  should 
be  good  judgment  and  pure  taste  in  fitting  the  word  to 
the  thought.  With  these  aims  in  view,  is  it  not  pos- 
sible to  establish  a  standard  of  measurement  which 
will  be  satisfactory  alike  to  writer  and  reader  and 
which  will  make  possible  greater  uniformity  in  the 
judgment  of  various  readers  of  the  same  theme? 


FOR  FURTHER  THOUGHT 

1.  Give  Miss  Parker's  argument  on  the  subject  of  measuring 
composition  work. 

2.  Give  Mr.  Courtis's  defense  of  the  scheme. 

3.  What  is  Mr.   Ward's  contention? 

4.  What  is  your  own  conviction  ? 

(For  discussion  of  these  topics,  see  Bibliography  below.) 


ORAL   AND   WRITTEN   EXPRESSION  111 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

The  English  Journal: 

Courtis,  S.  A.  "The  Uses  of  the  Hillegas  Scale,"  April,  1919. 
(Answer  to  Miss  Parker,  below.)  A  measure  of  admin- 
istrative w^ork,  not  of  teaching.  Sizing  up  of  one^s  own 
efforts  compared  with  others. 

Gunther,  Charles.  "My  Experience  with  the  Hillegas  Scale," 
November,  1919. 

Parker,  Flora  E.    "The  Value  of  Measurements,"  April,  1919. 

Ward,  C.  H.     "The  Scale  Illusion,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  221. 

Bureau  of  Publications,  Teachers  College,  New  York  City: 

Trabue,  M.  R.  "Supplementing  the  Hillegas  Scale  for  Eng- 
lish Composition." 


CHAPTER  FOUR 

INTERPRETATION  OF  LITERATURE 

The  Choice  of  Literature.  The  Teaching  of  Literature.  The 
Problem  of  Reading.  Imitation  a  Means  of  Appreciation. 
Dramatization  a  Means  of  Appreciation. 

THE  CHOICE  OF  LITERATURE 

What  are  the  factors  that  are  to  be  considered  in 
choosing  books  for  junior  and  senior  high-school  study 
and  reading?  The  problem  is  a  psychological  one. 
It  is  all-important  that  we  catch  the  interest  of  the 
student  at  the  beginning  of  his  course  in  literature, 
for  only  through  interest  shall  we  be  able  to  establish 
the  reading  habit  which  is  so  essential  an  asset  in  the 
life  of  the  pupil  after  a  little  while,  and  which  will 
help  him  to  use,  not  misuse,  his  leisure  moments  now 
as  they  come  into  his  life  from  day  to  day.  The 
psychology  of  the  high -school  student  then  must  be 
understood  by  the  planner  of  a  literature  course. 
First,  the  desires  of  the  student  must  be  studied;  his 
natural  bent  must  be  discovered.  Next,  the  question  of 
interest  must  be  considered.  Has  the  book  the  power 
to  rouse  the  interest  in  the  pupil  at  his  particular  stage 
of  development? 

Content  or  subject  matter  is  of  paramount  im- 
portance— more  so  than  literary  style  in  the  begin- 
ning. Does  the  content  appeal  to  the  student?  Is  it 
within  his  range  of  experience?  Or  can  it  function 
vicariously  in  the  life  of  the  student? 

112 


INTERPRETATION    OF    LITERATURE  113 

Test  the  book  next  for  its  human  element.  The  boy 
or  girl  of  this  age  demands  the  genuine  human  touch 
in  what  he  or  she  reads. 

These  are  the  points  to  be  considered  in  the  litera- 
ture through  which  we  make  our  approach,  the  books 
which  are  to  serve  as  our  point  of  departure. 

Then  we  must  weigh  the  character  needs  and  the 
culture  needs  of  our  students  and  select  with  these 
needs  in  mind.  While  we  may  use  the  pupil's  desire 
as  a  point  of  attack,  we  should  certainly  lead  up  to  the 
study  of  the  great  and  the  beautiful  in  the  world  of 
literary  art.  The  pupil's  taste  is  crude  and  needs  cul- 
tivating. The  future  is  to  be  thought  of,  something 
above  and  beyond  the  immediate  wishes  of  the  pupil. 
As  the  Committee  on  Reorganization  of  Secondary 
English  says:  "No  man  is  higher  than  his  ideals. 
Human  beings  grow  unconsciously  in  the  direction  of 
that  which  they  admire.  Teachers  of  English  must, 
then,  consciously  work  to  raise  the  pupils'  standards 
of  what  is  true  and  fine  in  men  and  women.  The 
literature  lesson  must  furnish  the  material  out  of 
which  may  be  created  worthy  and  lasting  ideals  of 
life  and  conduct." 

Mr.  Chubb  suggests  an  excellent  device  for  dis- 
covering our  pupils'  tastes.  Let  the  first  writing  of 
the  class  be  a  paragraph  on  "My  Book  Shelf."  Some  of 
the  papers  will  doubtless  be  very  brief.  Many  will  re- 
veal a  motley  array,  but  all  will  be  illuminating — if 
not  positively,  then  negatively.  The ,  tastes  of  our 
pupils  differ  widely.  Here  is  John,  caring  not  at  all 
for  poetry,  but  reading,  nay  devouring,  the  Scientific 
American;  Alice  is  sensitive  to  sound  and  loves  the 


114  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

rhythm  of  verse;  Will  loves  animals;  and  Tom  over 
yonder  is  never  happy  unless  making  things  with  his 
hands.  What  shall  we  do  about  it?  The  answer  is 
obvious. 

Offer  various  kinds  of  literature  for  consumption  by 
the  class.  Should  all  be  forced  to  read  all  kinds?  Yes, 
to  a  certain  extent.  This  choice  of  literature  should  be 
a  matter  of  cooperation  and  compromise,  of  give  and 
take  between  pupils  and  teacher.  By  all  means  let 
pupils  have  a  voice  in  the  selection.  Let  them  even 
suggest  names  of  books.  Votes  may  be  cast,  and  the 
rule  of  the  majority  be  put  into  effect  in  certain  cases. 
But  the  teacher  should  always  have  the  power  of  veto 
and  of  independent  selection  whenever  he  considers  it 
necessary.  For  the  work  must  be  developing  work; 
it  must  lead  to  a  pushing  on  of  the  frontier.  Hence 
we  should  not  stand  with  those  who  would  leave  abso- 
lute choice  in  the  hands  of  the  pupils,  nor  should  we 
advocate  with  Mr.  John  B.  Opdycke  a  system  of 
Literature  a  la  carte  instead  of  our  present  table 
d'hote,  although  we  could  introduce  in  the  menu  of 
the  latter  many  entrees  suited  to  the  individual  tast€S 
of  the  pupils.  Complete  socialization  of  the  choice  of 
literature  would  keep  the  study  on  a  low  plane.  And 
we  must  constantly  enlarge  our  boundaries. 

What  literature  shall  we  teach,  then?  (1)  Because 
of  the  pupil's  interest  in  the  life  about  him,  and  in  the 
immediate  rather  than  the  remote  past,  books  to  be 
read  and  studied  by  high-school  pupils  at  the  begin- 
ning of  their  course  should  be  chosen  largely  from  the 
literary  product  of  the  nineteenth  century  and  after. 
Says  Professor  Tilden:    'T  believe  that  if  we  are  to 


INTERPRETATION  .OF  LITERATURE  115 

save  the  older  literature  and  make  it  a  force  in  the 
life  of  the  present,  we  must  reverse  our  method  of 
teaching  the  oldest  first,  and,  using  modern  literature 
as  a  stepping  stone,  lead  the  student  to  appreciate 
the  literature  of  his  own  life,  and  through  that  the 
literature  of  the  life  of  other  times."  (2)  Be- 
cause literature  is  still  in  the  making,  let  us  not  ex- 
clude the  magazine  and  the  contemporary  short  story. 
Mr.  Cunningham  in  The  English  Leaflet  for  February, 
1916,  makes  a  strong  plea  for  the  use  of  the  short 
story.  He  says:  "The  short  story,  long  recognized  as 
a  separate  type  of  fiction,  should  be  given  a  valid  and 
dignified  place  in  the  reading  course  of  our  secondary 
schools.  The  other  types  of  literature  should  be 
studied  just  as  thoroughly  as  heretofore;  in  addition, 
the  short  story  should  receive  its  due  credit,  not  as  a 
minor  and  rather  negligible  offshoot  of  the  novel,  but 
as  a  distinct  and  living  type,  and  a  type,  moreover, 
which  has  a  special  fitness  for  the  work  of  the  sec- 
ondary-school English  course.  Let  ijs,  at  least,  belong 
to  our  age."  Some  modern  writers  we  must,  indeed, 
include  lest  we  impose  upon  our  pupils  the  idea  that 
all  "real  authors"  are  long  since  dead — the  idea  so 
naively  expressed  by  a  little  boy  in  a  letter  to  James 
Whitcomb  Riley,  when  he  said:  "I  tell  you  what,  Mr. 
Riley,  I  was  surprised  to  learn  that  you  was  living, 
because  I  thought  all  poets  was  dead!"  (3)  Because 
the  American  boy  should  understand  the  American 
ideal  and  the  American  spirit  as  they  are  reflected  in 
the  literary  output  of  his  own  country,  let  us  include 
American  writers.  (4)  Because,  in  the  words  of  Pro- 
fessor Dewey,  "It  may  be  said  that  an  education  which 


116  ENGLISH  PROBLEMS 

does  not  succeed  in  making  poetry  a  resource  in  the 
business  of  life  as  well  as  in  its  leisure,  has  something 
the  matter  with  it — or  else  the  poetry  is  artificial;''^ 
poetry  should  be  read  and  studied  in  every  year  of  the 
course.  Wisdom  should,  to  be  sure,  be  exercised  in  the 
choice.  The  narrative  poem  of  stirring  appeal  is 
the  type  for  high-school  students.  (5)  Because  the 
adolescent  with  his  love  of  adventure  and  action,  and 
his  supreme  confidence  in  himself  is  peculiarly  ready 
to  appreciate  the  Elizabethan  epoch  which  bubbles 
over  with  the  spirit  of  youth,  the  age  of  Elizabeth  as 
reflected  in  the  plays  of  the  master  dramatist  of  all 
time  should  be  viewed  again  and  again  throughout  the 
course.  At  least  one  of  Shakespeare's  plays  should 
form  a  unit  of  study  in  each  year  of  the  high-school 
literature  course.  (6)  Because  of  the  universal  wor- 
ship of  the  hero  "writ  large,'!  the  big  deeds  of  the 
heroes  of  other  days  and  lands  recorded  in  the  epics 
of  their  native  countries  should  be  included :  the  Iliad, 
the  Odyssey,  the  Aeneid,  and  Bible  stories,  for  instance. 
(7)  Because  it  is  our  business  to  establish  and  develop 
standards  of  taste,  the  classics  must  form  the  back- 
bone of  the  course.  Can  we  not  draw  up  a  course  of 
reading  and  study  based  on  these  seven  principles? 

FOR  FURTHER  THOUGHT 

1.  Discuss  the  use  of  varied  types  in  the  literature  class. 

2.  Name  the  principles  of  choice  in  selecting  books  for  the 
literature  class. 

3.  Su2:gest  a  course  based  on  these  principles. 

4.  Sugo^est  a  literature  program  for  the  junior  high  school. 

1.  Democracy  and  Education,  page  282. 


INTERPRETATION    OF   LITERATURE  117 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 
Chubb,  P.    The  Teaching  of  English.    Chapter  XIV. 
Smith,  C.  A.     What  Can  Literature  Do  for  Me  f  ^ 

Thomas,  C.  S.    The  Teaching  of  English  in  the  Secondary  School. 

Chapter  VII. 
The  English  Journal: 

Clark,  Fannie  M.  "Teaching  Children  to  Choose,"  March,  1920. 
Hull,  A.  M.     "New  Classics  for  Old,"  October,  1917. 
McCain,  Rea.     "The  Fear  of  the  Present,"  November,  1916. 
Sperlin,  0.  B.     "What  Literature  Shall  We  Teach?"    May, 
1918. 
The  English  Leaflet: 

Cunningham,  W.  H.    "The  Possibilities  of  the  Short  Story," 
February,  1916. 


THE  TEACHING  OF  LITERATURE 

How  shall  we  teach  literature  to  our  boys  and  girls 
in  both  junior  and  senior  high  school  so  that  the  sub- 
ject shall  become  of  really  vital  moment  to  them? 

As  to  ways  and  means,  the  use  of  the  club  idea  and 
the  group  method  of  cooperative  work  in  solving  prob- 
lems as  they  at-ise  from  day  to  day  are  advised.  'The 
spirit  of  club  life  and  the  spirit  of  all  composition  and 
literature  work,  wherever  possible,  must  be  social  in 
nature.  'Having  an  audience'  is  a  stock  phrase  of 
everyone  interested  in  making  composition  and  litera- 
ture vital,"  says  Mr.  Webster.^  Pupils  should  always 
read  and  talk  to  "an  audience,"  usually  their  class- 
mates ;  and  their  audience  should  be  a  real,  participat- 
ing audience,  following  with  the  listening  ear,  never 
with  the  eye  on  the  text,  and  ever  ready  to  comment, 
criticize,  and  question.  Extensive  rather  than  intensive 
studyVith  as  much  work  only  in  the  text  as  is  neces- 
sary for  intelligent  reading  should  be  made.  Don't 
"worry  the  text,"  as  someone  phrases  it.    There  should 

1.   The  English  Leaflet,  "Oral  English,"  January,  1918. 


118  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

be  much  reading  in  the  modern  as  well  as  in  the  classic 
writers;  encouragement  of  free  and  spontaneous  ex- 
pression of  impressions  gained  from  reading;  variety 
in  the  selections  chosen  for  study,  in  order  to  kindle  the 
interest  of  all.  Create  "atmosphere"  in  the  English 
classroom  by  having:  a  choice  collection  of  books  and 
current  periodicals  on  the  reading  table  for  supple- 
mentary work;  a  victrola  for  giving  the  pupils  the 
privilege  from  time  to  time  of  hearing  the  living 
voice  in  a  famous  lyric  or  noted  oration;  a  lantern  or 
projectoscope  for  the  projection  of  pictures  as  aids  in 
background  study;  and,  if  possible,  movable  chairs 
and  a  raised  platform  so  that  at  a  moment's  notice  the 
place  may  be  adapted  to  the  presentation  of  im- 
promptu dramatizations.  If  you  cannot  have  these 
things,  make  shift  as  well  as  you  can  through  in- 
tensified appeal  to  the  pupil's  imagination. 

Memorizing  passages  from  the  books  read  should 
play  an  important  part  in  any  course  in  literature. 
And  accuracy  in  quotation  and  citation  should  be  in- 
sisted on.  I  quote  on  this  point  Miss  Warner  of  Mt. 
Holyoke  College:  "Nothing  develops  literary  tone 
more  swiftly  than  a  sharp  lookout  for  significant 
phrases;  and  nothing  gives  greater  value  to  literary 
study  than  the  habit  of  retaining  in  memory  or  in 
notebook  these  little  characteristic  scraps  of  artistic 
language.  Students  should  memorize  more  than  they 
do,  anc}  they  are  easily  encouraged  to  commit  to  mem- 
ory short  sentences,  striking  epithets,  and  brief  pas- 
sages rich  with  meaning.  A  literary  work  is  not  ade- 
quately read  unless  fragments  of  its  language  are 
singing  in  their  minds.    Involuntary  memorizing  oc- 


INTERPRETATION  OF  LITERATURE  119 

curs  more  frequently  with  most  people  than  they 
guess  until  someone  suggests  that  they  try  to  recall 
a  few  of  the  author's  precise  words;  and  the  habit  is 
easily  cultivated.  One  of  the  most  interesting  sets  of 
sentences  for  memorizing  was  chosen  by  a  certain  class 
of  sophomore  boys  who  were  studying  Palmer's 
Odyssey;  and  of  all  the  notable  ^ntences  chosen,  the 
most  immediately  popular  was  the  remark  of  the  dis- 
creet Telemachus,  'One's  dinner  at  the  proper  time  is 
no  bad  thing!'  " 

The  pupil's  interest  and  enthusiasm  must  be 
aroused  at  the  very  outset  of  his  literature  course. 
The  inadvisability  of  beginning  the  course  with  a  dif- 
ficult selection  is  obvious,  and  for  our  purposes  in  the 
junior  high-school  course  all  long  stories,  even  such  as 
Ivanhoe  and  The  Last  of  the  Mohicans,  come  under 
the  classification,  ^'difiicult."  Undoubtedly  it  is  wiser 
to  begin  the  study  with  work  on  the  short  story.  "To 
arouse  initial  enthusiasm,"  says  Mr.  Cunningham,  "no 
type  of  literature  is  more  apt  than  the  judiciously  se- 
lected short  story;  for  it  is  rapid,  direct,  vivid,  and 
brief  enough  so  that  the  lightly  swerving  attention 
of  the  young  pupil  is  neither  tempted  to  stray  nor  be 
lulled  to  sleep  ....  Again,  the  short  story  is 
admirably  adapted  for  practice  in  reading  aloud  in  the 
classroom.  The  vigor  of  the  short  story,  the  compact 
style,  .the  abundance  of  dialogue,  the  colloquial  flow  of 
sentences,  all  aid  in  piquing  and  maintaining  the  in- 
terest of  the  pupils  and  in  furnishing  a  much  more 
varied  test  of  power  than  the  reading  of  an  ordinary 
essay  or  poem.  With  what  naive  delight,  for  example, 
would  pupils  read  one  of  Jacob's  sailor  stories;  with 


120  ENGLISH    PROBLEMS 

what  apathy  would  they  drone  out  The  House  of 
the  Seven  Gables  or  even  The  Idylls  of  the  King." 

The  short  story  offers  an  excellent  field  for  dramati- 
zation by  the  pupils,  and  we  all  know  from  experience 
that  there  is  no  more  potent  device  for  socializing  and 
vitalizing  literature  than  dramatization. 

The  short  story  n^akes  a  fine  point  of  attack  in  our 
literature  classes.  There  should  be  another  bridge 
connecting  our  eighth  and  ninth  years  besides  the 
bridge  of  sighs.  Why  not  build  that  bridge  of  short 
stories,  as  Mr.  Cunningham  suggests?  The  short  story 
is  the  form  of  literature  with  which  our  boys  and  girls 
of  today  are  most  familiar.  And  their  reading  taste 
should  be  trained  so  that  they  will  learn  to  distinguish 
between  the  mediocre,  the  really  good,  and  the  palpably 
bad  fiction,  a  mixture  of  which  is  served  us  every 
month  by  magazines  in  good  standing. 

Indeed  the  short  story  is  so  peculiarly  adapted  to 
arouse  the  interest  of  the  student  of  secondary-school 
age  that  we  may  go  so  far  as  to  maintain  that  some- 
thing should  be  done  with  this  type  in  each  of  the 
years  of  both  the  junior  and  the  senior  high-school 
course  in  literature,  preferably  at  the  beginning  of 
each  year's  work.  Shakespeare  and  the  short  story 
should  be  ever  with  us  in  our  high-school  study  of 
literature. 

The  short  story  is  an  excellent  instrument  for 
kindling  interest  in  the  literature  class  if  the  study 
is  made  a  thoroughly  social  one.  And  the  best  method 
of  doing  this  is  through  cooperative  class  fiction.  An 
experiment  of  this  kind  can  be  made  in  any  of  the 
years  of  high  school,  junior  or  senior.    The  results,  of 


INTERPRETATION  OF  LITERATURE  121 

course,  will  vary  with  the  maturity  of  the  students, 
but  the  interest  will  be  there  wherever  it  is  tried. 

Such  an  experiment  was  made  by  Mary  E.  Jenness  in 
the  Concord  High  School  and  described  at  length  by 
her  in  The  English  Leaflet  for  December,  1916,  under 
the  title  "Cooperative  Fiction."  Her  account  is  so  full 
of  workable  and  dynamic  suggestions  that  no  apology 
need  be  made  for  quoting  it  at  length. 

'The  place  to  study  the  craft  of  story-making  is 
still  where  Jack  London  studied  it — in  the  magazines. 
Bring  in  your  copy  of  the  Century  some  Monday 
morning  and  read  the  beginning  of  a  Penrod  adven- 
ture. After  the  first  three  paragraphs,  stop  and  jot 
down  on  the  board  the  actual  information  given  so 
far ;  talk  it  over ;  call  for  a  seven-minute  written  guess 
as  to  the  rest  of  the  story.  If  necessary,  read  on  fur- 
ther, answer  a  question  or  two  to  start  the  game.  After 
half  a  dozen  of  their  forecasts  have  been  read,  read 
then  the  ending  and  give  the  class  the  rest  of  the 
period  to  work  out  the  whole  story.  They  cannot 
help  learning  something  about  the  first  two  essentials 
of'  story-writing — a  crisp,  packed  beginning,  and  a 
pointed  close.  .  .  .  Penrod  is  a  hardy  perennial. 
Almost  anything  might  happen  to  him.  What  did 
happen  next?  They  all  want  to  know,  for  to  their 
minds  a  really  good  writer  should  never  slam  the  door 
on  a-  favorite  character.  There  must  be  another  in- 
cident somewhere!  They  want  to  know  what  hap- 
pened to  Penrod,  and  to  a  limited  extent  some  of  them 
do  know.  He  is  indigenous.  Everybody  knows  him, 
only  most  of  us  never  tried  taking  notes  on  him  be- 
fore.   Out  of  their  first  half-dozen  suggestions,  take 


122  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

the  best  as  the  assignment  for  the  next  day;  they  will 
ferret  their  neighborhood  for  material. 

"Penrod  may  have  as  many  adventures  as  the  class 
wants.  Only  make  it  clear  that  the  next  hero  will  be 
for  them  to  chopse.  Perhaps  a  week  from  Monday 
they  are  ready  to  bring  books  out  of  which  a  hero  may 
be  bodily  lifted  for  their  purposes.  Has  anybody  read 
anything  of  Owen  Johnson's?  Not  the  Tennessee 
Shad!  Bring  him.  Exit  Penrod  of  the  grimy  grin. 
Enter  the  Lank  Intellect  of  Lawrenceville.  Then,  for 
a  guess,  it  will  be  one  of  Ralph  Paine's  hard,  clean 
fighters,  who  'never  knows  when  he  is  beaten.' 

"So  far  this  has  all  been  cooperative  thinking  on  the 
commonest  principles  of  story-writing.  When  they 
are  ready  for  more,  announce  the  first  meeting  of  the 
Cooperative  Fiction  Club.  Elect — not  appoint — a 
committee  on  plots  and  a  critic  committee.  Tomor- 
row all  the  stories  will  be  handed  to  this  committee 
before  the  school.  The  committee  will  consult  at  once, 
and  bring  the  best  three  to  read  to  the  class,  which  will 
then  vote  which  one  it  wants  to  continue.  The  critic 
committee  may  change  weekly  if  you  will,  but  the 
story  will  have  to  be  restrained  or  it  will  go  on  for- 
ever. The  epic  instinct  has  awakened.  Remember 
there  were  twelve  labors  of  Hercules,  twenty-four 
books  of  the  Iliad. 

"If  the  scheme  gets  this  far,  anything  will  work.  A 
story  from  your  college  monthly,  a  clever  cartoon, 
even  a  bulletin  heading  will  suffice  to  start  cerebration 
in  the  plot  committee. 

"Cooperative  fiction  in  the  classroom  rests  soundly 
on  normal  pleasure  of  high-school  age ;  pupils  of  aver- 


INTERPRETATION  OF  LITERATURE  123 

age  ability  do  like  to  pool  their  findings,  to  follow  a 
moving  goal,  to  add  their  one  word  more  to  adven- 
ture together,  to  find  themselves.  The  test  of  the 
method  is  that  the  best  pupils  rapidly  outgrow  it,  but 
at  least  the  school  has  insisted  that  they  share  their 
gifts  and  make  definite  contribution.  And  so  shall 
the  duller  ones — they  who  make  up  in  the  classroom 
full  nine  and  twenty  of  any  company — gain  their  due 
glory  of  self-expression  by  continuing  their  variations 
of  a  common  theme,  down  the  road  to  a  communal 
Canterbury." 

An  all-important  subject  of  study  in  every  literature 
course  should  be  the  book.  And  this  study  should 
come  early  in  the  junior  high-school  course.  Pupils 
should  be  taught  from  first  to  last  in  their  literature 
courses  to  respect  and  reverence  the  book,  the  ma- 
terial basis  of  their  course  in  literature,  the  only 
medium  through  which  they,  can  commune  with  the 
great  minds  of  the  past,  or  can  learn  the  thoughts  of 
men  and  women  of  their  own  time  that  are  worth 
recording  in  permanent  form.  The  teacher  might 
start  this  study  by  a  short  talk  on  the  evolution  of 
the  book,  designed  to  kindle  the  pupil's  interest  in  the 
subject  so  that  special  reports  shall  be  forthcoming 
on  such  topics  as  The  Material  Shape  of  Literature 
Before  the  Invention  of  Printing ;  The  Influence  of  the 
Invention  of  Printing  on  Literature;  The  Book  from 
Caxton's  Press;  The  Modern  Printing  Press;  The 
Making  of  a  Book  Today. 

A  reproduction  of  the  series  of  mural  paintings  on 
"The  Evolution  of  the  Book"  in  the  Library  of  Con- 
gress at  Washington  is  given  in  the  Handbook  of  the 


124  ENGLISH  PROBLEMS 

Library.  A  pupil  might  obtain  one  of  these  books  and 
make  the  pictures  referred  to  the  basis  for  another 
special  report. 

Then  definite  study  should  be  made  of  the  make-up 
oi  a  book  as  it  comes  from  the  press  today,  of  its 
parts,  title  page,  table  of  contents,  index,  and  the  pur- 
pose of  each  part.  Each  pupil  should  be  required  to 
know  the  exact  title  and  the  names  of  the  author  and 
publisher  of  every  book  he  studies  or  reads;  and  ac- 
curacy should  be  insisted  upon  in  each  detail.  Pupils 
should  be  led  to  appreciate  the  significance  of  the 
manufactured  product,  the  book,  and  to  handle  with 
care  their  own  books. 

They  should  certainly  be  taught  how  to  use  books  in 
their  supplementary  work  and  ho\y  to  quote  from 
books  and  articles  in  their  special  topic  and  debate 
work. 

Successful  teaching,  no  matter  what  the  subject, 
places  responsibility  upon  the  pupils.  Why  does  the 
overburdened  teacher  insist  on  carrying  the  responsi- 
bility of  the  result  of  his  teaching  as^  well  as  the 
process?  That  burden  should  rest  on  the  shoulders  of 
the  students.  We  all  have  moments  of  depression 
caused  by  the  indifference  of  the  class  reaction.  From 
the  following  scheme  adopted  by  a  teacher  at  just 
such  a  moment  in  her  teaching  experience,  some  of  us 
may  catch  the  gleam.  This  is  what  she  writes  in  The 
English  Leaflet: 

"  Tomorrow  we'll  take  three  hundred  more  lines  in 
Comus,  but  I'm  not  going  to  question  you — you're  to 
question  each  other.  One  of  you  will  be  called  up  to 
read  a  passage,  and  after  the  reading,  the  rest  of  you 


INTERPRETATION  OF  LITERATURE      325 

are  to  ask  such  questions  as  will  bring  out  the  mean- 
ing of  the  passage  as  a  whole  and  the  meaning  of  the 
separate  words  and  phrases  in  particular.  Be  able  to 
explain  the  allusions,  of  course;  but  don^t  forget  such 
questions  as  these:  Does  Comus  really  change  his 
costume?  Or  is  the  change  supposedly  wrought  by  a 
supernatural  means?  And  each  of  you,  because  you 
may  be  the  reader — and  hence  the  teacher — will  have 
to  master  all  these  varied  details.  Write  out  your 
questions  for  this  first  day  at  least — perhaps  we  shall 
not  do  that  tomorrow.  And  remember  it's  just  as 
much  your  business  as  a  non-reader  to  ask  these  ques- 
tions as  it  is  your  business  as  a  reader  to  answer 
questions. 

"Next  day  everyone  was  on  the  qui  vive,  Paul 
Briton  came  before  the  class  and  read  the  first  desig- 
nated passage,  while  the  rest  of  the  members  sat  eager, 
with  closed  books,  gathering  new  ideas  from  Briton's 
sympathetic  interpretation  and  storing  up  the  ques- 
tions which  they  were  to  fling  forth  when  time  for  the 
assault  arrived.  The  assault  began  the  moment  the 
reader  came  to  the  end.  Almost  simultaneously  the 
class  arose,  and  at  once  Briton — standing  erect  before 
his  mates — called  upon  Leonard,  who  put  his  question, 
which  was  promptly  answered.  Immediately  Briton 
called  upon  someone  else.  He  answered  the  question 
put  to  him,  and  at  once  called  upon  a  third  student. 
And  thus  he  stood  answering  the  various  questions 
that  assailed  him.  Some  he  disposed  of  with  a  single 
word;  others  required  fuller  explanation.  One  he 
could  not  answer,  but  he  got  the  information  from  a 
volunteer.     No  one  lagged.     Everyone  said  his  say. 


126  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

Naturally  there  were  some  disagreements,  but  these 
were  quickly  settled — generally  without  the  teacher's 
interference. 

"Always,  however,  the  sensitive  teacher  knows  when 
to  step  into  the  breach,  when  to  interpose  the  right 
word,  when  to  quit  hearing  a  recitation  and  to  do  con- 
structive teaching. 

"The  device  we  have  outlined  is  based  upon  the 
soundest  of  pedagogical  principles —  develop  the  pupil 
by  giving  him  responsibility.  Under  the  workings  of 
the  device  no  one  knew  when  he  would  be  called  upon 
to  be  the  teacher  and  answer  the  fusillade  of  varied 
questions.  There  was  then  no  escape.  Nor  was  there 
escape  as  a  questioner  either — for  sins  of  omission 
were  easily  noted  and  quickly  chalked.  Not  many  stu- 
dents will  shrink  from  responsibility  when  such  re- 
sponsibility is  wisely  imposed  and  where  failure  brings 
immediate  exposure.  In  dealing  with  corporations  we 
have  learned  that  personal  responsibility  and  publicity 
lessen  graft;  in  education  we  may  learn  that  they 
lessen  idleness  and  languorous  dawdling."  An  inter- 
esting scheme,  and  one  well  worth  trying,  to  be  sure. 

Another  rather  unique  experiment  in  vitalizing  high- 
school  literature  is  recorded  by  Miss  Warner  in  The 
English  Leaflet  for  November,  1917. 

"It  was  suggested  by  a  discussion  in  a  class  of  high- 
school  boys  studying  Macbeth.  There's  no  art  to  find 
the  mind's  construction  in  the  face.'  'Isn't  there?' 
they  inquired.  One  boy  insisted  that  even  in  a  photo- 
graph one  could  guess  at  general  social  distinctions, 
traits,  and  the  professional  standing  of  the  subject. 
Regardless  of  counter  arguments,  both  as  to  this  point 


INTERPRETATION   OF   LITERATURE  127 

and  the  proper  interpretation  of  Duncan's  statement, 
a  committee  was  at  once  appointed  to  collect  a  set  of 
striking  faces  photographed  clearly,  and  to  submit 
them  to  the  class  for  study.  We  made  this  the  basis 
of  the  theme  for  the  week.  Many  of  the  pictures  were 
found  in  the  magazines  and  in  the  brown  picture  sup- 
plements of  the  New  York  papers.  The  committee  an- 
nounced that  in  its  collection  were  the  following  types 
of  people:  a  great  business  man,  a  duchess,  a  minis- 
ter, a  professional  crook,  a  college  president,  an  ex- 
plorer, a  noted  criminal,  a  baseball  celebrity,  a  news- 
paper man,  an  English  peer,  and  artists  and  workers 
of  all  descriptions.  Each  member  of  the  class  was  in 
honor  bound  to  select  a  subject  whom  he  did  not 
recognize,  and  to  write  his  most  detailed  analysis  for 
the  next  day's  theme.  The  design  of  the  character 
readings  was  not  so  much  to  guess  the  profession  of 
the  person  under  speculation  as  to  disclose  whatever 
traits  were  suggested  by  the  face,  and  to  reflect  the 
personal  impression  produced  by  it.  Free  consultation 
with  friends  was  allowable,  so  long  as  the  persons  con- 
sulted did  not  know  too  much.  Next  day  the  themes 
and  pictures  were  examined  in  class  with  an  open  dis- 
cussion of  each  analysis  before  the  identity  of  the 
photograph  was  disclosed. 

*The  same  experiment  was  tried  later  with  pictures 
brought  in  by  various  students  who  wanted  to  test 
the  results  with  faces  of  more  noted  people,  still  un- 
known to  many  in  the  class.  Certain  of  the  pictures 
were  of  Forbes-Robertson,  Tagore,  Mrs.  Browning, 
Jane  Addams,  Marshall  Field,  Bronson  Alcott,  Dr. 
Seelye,  Daniel  Webster,  Irvin  Cobb,  Whistler's  Car- 


128      -  ENGLISH    PROBLEMS 

lyle,  James  Whitcomb  Riley,  and  Alexander's  portrait 
of  Walt  Whitman.  This  last  mentioned  was  included 
until  it  appeared  that  Walt  was  being  regularly  or- 
dained into  the  ministry,  whereupon  I  took  the  liberty 
of  substituting  Dr.  Lyman  Abbott  as  a  more  conven- 
tional representative  of  the  cloth.  After  various  ex- 
periments in  different  classes  it  became  clear  that  the 
ideal  selection  should  comprise  mainly  those  people 
whose  biographies  are  available,  as  the  discussions  sent 
many  to  the  library  to  hunt  up  their  favorite  charac- 
ters either  in  Who's  Who  or  in  their  own  works.  One 
boy  read  Stevenson's  life  and  letters  and  many  of  his 
writings  in  an  attempt  to  support  a  conviction  that 
Stevenson's  face  had  all  the  traits  of  a  somewhat 
stagy  but  deep-dyed  villain's.  Finally  he  brought  to 
class  that  wistful  paragraph  in  The  Inland  Voyage 
where  R.  L.  S.  asks  why  it  is  that  all  officials  at  every 
port  on  his  travels  take  him  invariably  for  a  suspicious 
character,  and  cast  him  into  noisome  dungeons  as  a 
spy,  or  at  least  a  refugee  from  justice.  Shakespeare, 
it  seemed,  was  right  about  some  minds'  construction, 
after  all." 

If  we  can  get  our  pupils  to  realize  that  literature  is 
as  Mr.  Smith  puts  it :  "A  new  pair  of  eyes — dozens  of 
pairs — with  which  to  see  things  you  never  dreamed 
of,  and  what  is  still  better  perhaps,  to  see  things  dif- 
ferently," then  surely  we  shall  have  achieved  our  pur- 
pose. For  what  mortal  does  not  want  to  see  more 
of  life  and  things?  Surely  not  the  youth  of  today. 
Perhaps  indeed  the  use  of  this  "new"  pair  of  eyes  or 
these  dozens  of  pairs  would  bring  about  reform  in  the 
use  of  his  original  pair.    Through  appreciating  litera- 


INTERPRETATION  OF  LITERATURE  129 

ture  he  might  become  more  observant  of  the  life  about 
him,  might  indeed  see  things  steadily  and  see  them 
whole,  not  piecemeal,  but  in  their  true  relations. 

Dramatization  of  scenes  from  the  classics  read  and 
studied  and  imitation  of  an  author's  method  here  and 
there  along  the  road  as  means  of  vitalizing  the  work  of 
the  literature  class  are  treated  separately  under  their 
respective  headings. 

FOR  FURTHER  THOUGHT 

1.  Discuss  the  literature  class  as  an  English  club. 

2.  Discuss  the  avocational  aim  in  the  teaching  of  literature. 

3.  Discuss  dramatization  as  an  aid  in  the  teaching  of  litera- 
ture. 

4.  Plan  a  laboratory  course  for  the  literature  class. 

5.  Should  the  course  in  literature  for  the  business  high  school 
be  the  same  as  for  the  academic  high  school?    Give  reasons. 

6.  How  should  the  literature  course  for  a  rural  high  school 
differ  from  that  of  a  city  high  school? 

7.  Discuss  at  least  two  ways  of  testing  the  appreciation  in  the 
literature  class. 

8.  Discuss  the  literature  program  for  the  junior  high  school 
as  to  (1)  aims,  (2)  methods  of  teaching. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Bolenius,  E.  M.    Teaching  Literature  in  the  Grammar  Grades  and 

the  High  School. 
Chubb,  P.     The  Teaching  of  English,  "Versification,"   Chapter 

XVIII. 
Dewey,  J.     Democracy  and  Education,  "Poetry,"  p.  282. 
Fairchild,  A.  H.  R.    The  Teaching  of  Poetry  in  the  High  School. 
Thoma^,    C.    S.      The    Teaching    of   English    in    the    Secondary 

Schools. 
The  English  Journal: 

Aikin,  W.  M.     "Types  in  the  Study  of  Literature,"  April, 
1917. 

Barbe,  W.    "Literature,  the  Teacher,  and  the  Teens,"  June, 
1917. 


130  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

Clay,  M.  E.  "The  Hat  Box  in  Literature,"  December,  1916. 
Driggs,  H.  R.  "Seeing  Classics  as  Wholes,"  January,  1918. 
Hinehman,  W.   S.     "Reading  Clubs  Instead  of  Literature 

Classes,"  February,  1917. 
Humphreys,  \V.   R.    '"The  Literary   Study  of  the  Bible," 

April,  1917. 
Johnson,  R.  I.    "The  School  and  the  Library,"  April,  1917. 
Osgood,  C.  G.    "The  Artistic  Teaching  of  English,"  January, 

1918. 


THE  PROBLEM  OF  READING 

The  chief  and  basic  purpose  of  teaching  reading  is 
to  give  the  child  a  tool  for  work.  This  tool  or  in- 
strument is  the  most  important  one  for  use  in  the 
whole  educative  process.  Develop  in  the  child,  first, 
ease  and  facility  in  reading.  And  for  our  purpose  here 
the  definition  of  the  activity  we  call  reading  is  getting 
the  thought  from  the  printed  page.  As  long  as  this 
thought-getting  process  is  labored  there  can  be  no 
joy  in  reading.  As  it  becomes  easier  and  easier 
through  constant  practice,  the  desire  will  gradually  be 
aroused  for  more  reading.  If  we  can  arouse  in  him  the 
desire  to  read  further  in  all  lines  of  his  school  activ- 
ities, he  will  practically  be  able  to  educate  himself. 

The  relation  of  grammar  to  reading  is  not  often 
dwelt  upon.  Always  the  relation  between  grammar 
and  composition  is  noted.  Grammar  helps  the  child 
to  express  his  thoughts,  it  is  said,  but  what  about 
reading  and  grammar?  Grammar  properly  taught, 
from  the  point  of  view  of  function,  is  a  great  aid  in 
helping  the  pupil  to  get  the  thought  from  the  printed 
page.  One  writer  has  recently  summed  up  the  prob- 
lem of  English  in  the  junior  high  school  as  the  prob- 


INTERPRETATION    OF    L-ITEKATURE  131 

lem  of  reading.  Teach  our  children  how  to  read — how 
to  get  the  author's  thought — and  then  you  may  have 
little  to  do  in  teaching  them  how  to  study.  Hence,  let 
us  summon  to  our  side  all  the  aids  possible  in  teaching 
this  fundamental  of  the  curriculum.  Reading  writ 
large  throughout! 

'The  values  to  be  derived  from  the  reading  and 
study  of  literature  [Mr.  Hosic  tells  us]  are  of  three 
kinds,  namely:  training,  recreation,  and  socialization. 
By  reading  poetry,  plays,  novels,  and  essays  boys  and 
girls  should  learn  how  to  read  them.  This  means  the 
formation  of  a  number  of  important  habits,  such  as 
that  of  inquiring  continually  as  to  the  purpose  which 
the  author  is  serving,  that  of  observing  the  structure 
he  employs,  that  of  exercising  the  imagination,  and 
that  of  reflecting  upon  the  significance  of  words  and 
events.  Such  training  will  necessarily  yield  several 
worthy  by-products,  among  which  are  increased  fa- 
cility in  speech  and  writing,  and  an  accumulation  of 
more  or  less  miscellaneous  knowledge. 

'The  second  value,  that  of  recreation,  is  a  legitimate 
aim  of  school  work,  for  life  is  made  up  of  leisure  and 
labor,  often  labor  that  there  may  be  leisure,  though 
the  implication  that  labor  must  needs  be  repugnant 
is  unwarranted.  Turning  to  good  books  for  enjoy- 
ment is  a  habit  formed  by  enjoyable — not  effortless — 
reading.  Whether  this  enjoyment  can  involve  the  per- 
ception of  technical  skill  depends  upon  the  maturity 
and  experience  of  the  reader.  Pupils  from  twelve  to 
sixteen  should  not  be  expected  to  have  much  power  of 
critical  appreciation.  Nevertheless,  they  should  be 
developing  informally  standards  of  taste. 


13j?  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

'The  third  value  mentioned,  that  of  sociaUzation, 
requires  delicate  discrimination.  It  may  easily  be 
confused  with  the  merely  didactic  and  thus  suggest  the 
use  of  insincere  and  poorly  written  books  and  of  a 
hortatory  manner  of  teaching.  Whatever  makes  for  a 
better  understanding,  a  greater  disposition  to  cooper- 
ate, and  a  more  effective  type  of  organization  in  a 
group  tends  to  socialize.  Now  good  literature  does 
disseminate  knowledge  of  the  common  life;  it  does 
cultivate  sympathy;  it  does  set  up  ideals;  and  it  does 
awaken  motives.  Art  is  the  embodiment  of  ideas  in 
forms  that  are  socially  contagious;  it  does  not  per- 
form its  real  service  when  it  becomes  a  mere  'develop- 
ment of  technical  skill  and  a  badge  of  class  difference.' 
It  should  rather  quicken  the  spirit  and  awaken  an 
interest  in  those  around  us.  Through  the  arch  of  ex- 
perience ....  the  reader  of  books  may  catch 
a  glimpse  of  that  untraveled  world  whose  margin  fades 
forever  and  forever.' " 

And  Professor  John  Erskine  declares  that  we  are  all 
under  the  moral  obligation  to  be  intelligent.  Hence 
we  teachers  are  under  the  moral  obligation  to  make 
our  pupils  intelligent.  A  Course  in  General  Intelli- 
gence !  How  many  of  us  know  of  such  a  course  in  any 
high  school?  The  means  of  disseminating  intelligence 
are  by  discussion  and  reading.  It  is  the  English 
teacher's  function  to  take  charge  of  both  these  ac- 
tivities. He  is  supposed  to  be  able  to  give  expert 
opinion  on  both  of  these  points.  The  subject  of  read- 
ing is  the  special  field  of  the  teacher  of  literature.  It 
is  he  then  who  is,  in  the  last  analysis,  responsible  for 
the  awakening  of  intelligence  in  the  pupil's  brain. 


INTERPRETATION  OF  LITERATURE     133 

The  basic  needs  of  the  pupil  in  every  high-school 
course  of  study  are:  (1)  ability  to  read  intelligently 
and  (2)  ability  to  express  thought  accurately.  Hence 
we  indorse  unreservedly  Miss  Dixon's  statement  that 
the  aim  of  the  course  in  oral  English  should  be,  ^'to  aid 
and  supplement  the  student's  work  in  every  branch  of 
work  he  is  pursuing."  The  English  teacher  thus  be- 
comes the  champion  of  every  course  in  the  curriculum. 
When  the  teachers  of  other  subjects  come  to  view  the 
English  problem  in  this  light,  cooperation  is  a  fore- 
gone conclusion,  and  victory  for  the  better  speech  cam- 
paign is  assured. 

But  how  shall  we  induce  our  high-school  pupil  to 
read?  That  is  a  question  in  these  days  of  moving- 
picture  distractions.  First  we  must  open  to  the  pupil 
the  treasures  found  in  books;  we  must  make  him  feel 
what  he  is  missing  if  he  does  not  read,  and  we  must 
somehow  inoculate  him  with  the  germ  of  reading. 
This  we  will  never  do  by  a  minute  word  by  word 
examination  of  the  text  or  by  spending  several  weeks 
upon  a  brief  poem  or  a  short  story.  Later  on,  the 
teacher  may,  if  he  chooses,  chase 

"A  panting  syllable  through  time  and  space, 
Start  it  at  home  and  hunt  it  in  the  dark 
To  Gaul,  to  Greece,  and  into  Noah's  ark," 

but  not  while  trying  to  cultivate  a  taste  for  reading. 
At  first,  especially,  when  getting  the  pupil  started  on 
his  reading  career,  we  must  read  with  the  pupil;  we 
must  read  much  with  him,  and  we  must  read  much  to 
him.  It  is  often  a  good  plan  to  start  a  story  and  read 
until  the  pupiPs  interest  is  at  a  high  pitch ;  then  stop. 
He  will  find  ways  and  means  of  finishing  that  story, 


134  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

you  may  rest  assured.  It  is  in  this  way  only  that  the 
reading  habit  will  be  acquired  by  the  student.  Make 
him  waiit  to  read.  For  this  reason  it  is  suggested  that 
the  literature  ^course  in  the  junior  high  school  and  in 
the  first  year  of  the  senior  high  school  should  be- 
come a  reading  course.  The  aim  of  the  teacher 
should  be  to  teach  the  pupil  to  read  intelligently.  To 
this  end  daily  reading  lessons  to  last  half  the  English 
period  are  recommended.  Exercises  in  oral  reading 
prepared  at  home,  in  silent  reading  unprepared  at 
home,  and  in  sight  reading  aloud  should  be  given.  The 
teacher  should  drill  the  pupils  in  proper  phrasing, 
which  is  just  as  important  in  reading  as  in  music.  Just 
as  in  music  the  test  of  mastery  of  a  composition  is 
the  student's  performance  of  it,  so  in  literature  the 
test  of  appreciation  of  a  masterpiece  is  the  pupil's 
vocal  rendering  of  it.  "Poetry,  especially,"  says  Pro- 
fessor Rose  Colby,  "should  be  appreciated  as  directly 
as  possible  through  its  own  language  and  not  through 
a  resolution  of  that  language  into  the  language  of 
prose."  The  pupil  should  hear  good  reading;  hence 
the  teacher  should  be  ever  ready  to  read  for  the  class. 
The  poor  readers  should  not  be  allowed  to  bore  the 
class.  They  should  read  only  a  few  sentences — and  re- 
read these  after  listening  to  the  teacher's  rendering. 
A  passage  should  never  be  left  poorly  read.  By  so 
doing  great  risk  is  run  of  killing  instead  of  quickening 
a  love  of  literature.  The  teacher  is  the  last  resort. 
Always,  when  necessary,  he  should  read  the  passage 
himself.    Thus  a  pleasant  impression  is  left. 

Not  much  technical  work  should  be  done  with  the 
voice,  but  cooperation  with  the  music  department  of 


INTERPRETATION    OF   LITERATURE  135 

the  school  should  result  in  the  working  together  of  the 
English  and  music  departments  on  simple  exercises  in 
vocalization.  Short  drills  on  these  should  be  given 
daily  and  also  drills  to  secure  clear  enunciation,  the 
proper  pronunciation  of  word  endings,  and  the  avoid- 
ance of  running  together  certain  word  groupings  such 
as  ''would  have,"  "by  and  by,"  etc.  These  exercises  if 
persisted  in  should  give  the  pupil  such  command  of  his 
vocal  organs  as  will  make  his  voice  distinctly  audible 
and  pleasing  even  to  the  sensitive  ear. 

The  pupil  should  be  held  to  account  in  the  matter 
of  posture,  about  which  he  has  learned  in  his  physical 
training  work.  He  should  step  forward  iand  face  his 
audience  when  reading,  and  the  test  of  his  reading 
should  be,  not  once  or  twice  but 'always,  the  listening 
class.  The  class  should  sit  with  their  books  closed 
during  the  reading  and  follow  the  thought  of  the 
reader  by  the  ear,  never  by  the  eye. 

Much  practice  should  be  given  in  silent  reading, 
which  should  be  tested  for  both  accuracy  and  rapidity. 
Often  texts  studied  in  other  subjects  may  be  used  as 
material  for  this  exercise.  Pupils  should  be  shown 
that  the  kind  of  reading  they  do  depends  on  the  pur- 
pose for  which  they  are  reading.  Long  ago  Lord 
Bacon  laid  down  the  method.  "Some  books  are  to  be 
tasted,  others  to  be  swallowed,  and  some  few  to  be 
chewed  and  digested:  that  is,  some  books  are  to  be 
read  only  in  parts ;  others^,  to  be  read,  but  not  curi- 
ously; and  some  few  to  be  read  wholly  with  diligence 
and  attention." 

In  a  word,  the  pupil  should  be  taught  the  art  of 
skipping  on  the  one  hand,  and  on  the  other  he  should 


136  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

be  trained  in  the  process  of  "weighing  and  consider- 
ing." This  can  be  done  only  by  means  of  supervised 
study  or  rather  cooperative  study  by  pupils  and 
teacher.  The  teacher  must  show  the  pupil  how  to  ac- 
quire the  art  of  reading  for  various  purposes,  and  it 
will  not  be  done  in  a  week  either.  But  it  is  very  much 
worth  while  and  will  be  a  great  economic  gain  later 
on  if  in  the  first  year  of  his  high-school  work  the  pupil 
can  acquire  the  art  of  reading  intelligently,  which 
means  reading  with  various  degrees  of  intensity,  all 
depending  on  the  purpose  which  is  to  be  achieved  by 
the  reading. 

Outside  Reading 
If  we  can  create  in  the  pupil  a  taste  for  reading,  the 
problem  of  outside  reading  will  practically  solve  itself. 
That  such  a  taste  is  largely  non-existent  is  shown  by 
the  survey  recently  made  in  the  junior  and  senior  high 
schools  of  Decatur,  Illinois,  which  is  probably  typical 
of  what  prevails  in  most  other  school  communities. 
For  this  investigation  800  students  in  the  senior  high 
school  and  225  in  the  eighth  grade  were  questioned. 
One-fourth  of  the  high-school  pupils  reported  that 
they  did  not  read  the  daily  papers,  not  even  during 
the  war;  one  hundred  and  one  pupils  read  no  maga- 
zines; the  others  reported  a  total  of  178  different  pub- 
lications; three  hundred  and  eighty- three  pupils  had 
read  no  books  during  the  semester  not  required  by  the 
teachers.  The  report  goes  on  to  state  that  the  most 
remarkable  thing  about  the  list  is  the  titles  which  do 
not  appear.  Dickens  had  but  four  voluntary  readers; 
Hawthorne,  two;  Scott,  two;  Kipling,  one;  Bulwer 
Lytton,  one;  Cooper,  two;  Victor  Hugo,  two;  Barrie, 


INTERPRETATION   OF   LITERATURE  137 

one;  Milton,  one;  Tennyson,  one;  Kingsley,  one; 
Shakespeare,  one;  Stevenson,  none;  George  Eliot 
none. 

These  children  certainly  had  not  learned  to  love 
books. 

The  course  in  outside  reading  may  be  cooperative 
work.  First,  the  purpose  of  the  outside  reading  should 
be  distinctly  formulated.  Then,  the  class  may  be  di- 
vided into  groups,  and  each  group  may  submit  a  list. 
The  lists  may  be  discussed,  written  on  the  blackboard, 
and  compared.  Then,  it  is  usually  wise  to  make  a  com- 
promise, compiling  the  final  list  by  choosing  from 
both  teacher's  and  pupils'  selections.  By  all  means 
start  with  books  pupils  really  want  to  read;  then  try 
a  book  the  teacher  wants  the  pupil  to  read.  In  some 
schools  credit  is  given  for  outside  reading,  the  amount 
varying  with  the  character  and  length  of  the  book 
read.  But  best  results  come  when  the  outside  reading 
is  spontaneous,  when  pupils  read  and  read  and  read  be- 
cause they  want  to  read. 

The  most  effective  form  of  report  on  the  outside 
reading  is  the  oral  report,  the  avowed  purpose  of  which 
is  to  make  those  who  have  not  read  the  book  under 
discussion  want  to  do  so,  to  excite  the  interest  of  those 
ignorant  of  the  book  to  the  point  of  ignition.  Re- 
ports may  sometimes  be  given  by  groups,  each  group 
discussing  various  phases  of  a  particular  book.  The 
report  may  take  one  of  several  forms:  the  telling  of 
the  tale;  the  estimate  of  characters;  the  discussion  of 
striking  scenes  or  situations ;  the  acting  out  of  selected 
scenes ;  the  dramatization  of  the  climax.  In  every  case 
there  should  be  included  the  reading  of  illustrative 


138  ENGLISH    PROBLEMS 

passages  from  the  book.  For  it  is  the  living  work  of 
the  author  that  will  get  across  where  interpretations 
and  evaluations  fail.  In  some  of  our  classes  the  pupil 
has  kept  personal  notebooks  of  his  outside  reading. 
In  these  he  jots  down  a  significant  phrase,  his  own  re- 
action to  a  situation,  his  personal  expression  of  opinion. 
The  pupil  is  not  required  to  hand  in  these  books  but 
is  encouraged  to  read  from  them  every  now  and  then, 
and  interesting  reading  they  make,  indeed. 

FOR  FURTHER  THOUGHT 

1.  Make  an  examination  of  the  reading  lists  for  the  junior 
high  school  as  given  in  the  Reorganization  pamphlet.  What  is 
your  comment? 

2.  Suggest  ways  of  testing  the  listening  class. 

3.  Mention  ways  and  means  of  vitalizing  reports  on  outside 
reading. 

4.  Discuss  the  group  method  of  assignment  of  and  reporting 
on  outside  reading. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Brandes,  George.     On  Reading. 

Briggs  and  Coffman.    Reading  in  the  Public  Schools. 

Clark,  S.  H.     How  to  Teach  Reading. 

Colby,  J.  Rose.     Literature  and  Life  in  the  School. 

Laing,  Mary  E.    Reading:  A  Manual  for  Teachers. 

Ward,  C.  H.     What  Is  English?    Chapter  X. 

Wilson,  Martha.  Books  for  High  Schools  (American  Library 
Association  Publication  Board).  Reading  for  Pleasure  and 
Profit  (a  list  of  certain  books  which  young  people  tind 
entertaining).  Published  by  the  Free  Public  Library,  New- 
ark, N.  J. 

The  English  Journal: 

Engleman,  J.  0.    "Outside  Reading,"  January,  1917. 
Miles,  Dudley.     "Socializing  Outside  Reading,"  VI,  p.  330, 

January,  1917. 
Pxence,  R.  W.    "Chats  About  Books,"  December,  1917. 

The  Reorganization  Bulletin,  pp.  99-102. 

List  published  by  the  N.  C.  T.  E. 


INTERPRETATION   OF   LITERATURE  139 

IMITATION  A  MEANS  OF  APPRECIATION 

Imitative  writing  will  prove  a  vitalizing,  energizing 
exercise  in  both  composition  and  literature  classes. 
Long  ago  Plato  recognized  the  potency  of  the  imitative 
instinct  and  dealt  at  length  with  it  in  his  educational 
scheme.  But  it  is  only  within  the  past  few  years  that 
definite  use  has  been  made  of  the  principle  of  imitation 
in  our  educative  process.  Since  M.  Tarde's  masterly 
formulation  of  the  laws  of  imitation,  the  attention  of 
educators  has  been  drawn  more  and  more  to  its  study, 
until  today  the  important  role  it  plays  in  education  is 
generally  recognized. 

Says  Professor  Dewey  in  Democracy  and  Education 
(p.  43),  "Imitation  of  means  of  accomplishment  is  an 
intelligent  act.  It  involves  close  observation  and  ju- 
dicious selection  of  what  will  enable  one  to  do  better 
something  which  he  already  is  trying  to  do.  Used  for 
a  purpose,  the  imitative  instinct  may,  like  any  other  in- 
stinct, become  a  factor  in  the  development  of  effective 
action." 

In  the  teaching  of  English,  indeed,  it  is  of  para- 
mount importance.  The  child  at  work  or  play  is  al- 
ways copying  .a  model.  Wordsworth's  lines  are 
familiar : 

"Behold  the  child  wnong-  his  new-born  blisses, 

A  six  years*  darling  of  a  pigmy  size ! 
See,  where  'mid  work  of  his  own  hand  he  lies, 

Fretted  by  sallies  of  his  mother's  kisses. 
With  light  upon  him  from  his  father's  eyes ! 

See,  at  his  feet  some  little  plan  or  chart. 
Some  frag-raent  of  his  dream  of  human  life. 

Shaped  by  himself  with  newly-learned  art; 
A  wedding  or  a  festival, 
A  mourning  or  a  funeral; 


140  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

And  this  hath  now  his  heart, 

And  unto  this  he  frames  his  song; 

Then  will  he  fit  his  tongue 
To  dialogues  of  business,  love,  or  strife; 

But  it  will  not  be  long 

Ere  this  be  laid  aside, 

And  with  new  joy  and  pride 
The  little  actor  cons  another  part ; 
Filling  from  time  to  time  his  'humorous  stage' 
With  all  the  Persons  down  to  palsied  Age, 
That  life  brings  with  her  in  her  equipage ; 

As  if  his  whole  vocation 

Were  endless  imitation." 

Conscious,  rational  imitation  is  a  necessary  act  of 
all  learning;  it  is  the  preliminary  step  to  invention  or 
creation.  And  it  is  this  conscious,  deliberate,  rational 
imitation  that  is  of  greatest  educative  value. 

Technic  in  music  and  the  plastic  arts  is  acquired 
through  modeling  after  the  masters.  Why  should  not 
this  method  be  used  by  teachers  of  English?  To  those 
who  object  to  the  use  of  imitation  in  English  com- 
position as  deadly  to  originality  of  expression  we 
would  say,  "Man  cannot  create  something  out  of 
nothing,  or  form  without  a  model."  Moreover,  imi- 
tation is  a  means,  not  an  end.  Our  end  is  their  end;  • 
power  of  self-expression,  not  servile  reproduction.  We 
maintain  that  imitation  of  a  master  is  a  means  of  gain- 
ing power  of  self-expression,  not  of  .inducing  self-re- 
pression. To  imitate  is  not  the  way  to  write,  but  it 
is  one  of  the  ways  to  learn  to  write.  "To  reproduce  in 
your  own  words"  is  to  develop  little  linguistic  power, 
but  to  produce  "after  the  master"  is  to  cause  assimila- 
tion of  the  new  so  that  it  becomes  part  of  the  pupiPs 
linguistic  hoard.    Imitation  is  a  thought-compelling. 


INTERPRETATION   OF   LITERATURE  141 

dynamic  exercise.  It  is  a  preliminary  step  to  creation. 
Mr.  Jaspar  Newton  Deahl,  in  his  interesting  mono- 
graph, Imitation  in  Education,  makes  a  plea  for  the 
use  of  imitation  by  teachers  as  a  valuable  means  of  se- 
curing mind  growth,  and  Mr.  Percival  Chubb,  in  his 
illuminating  book.  The  Teaching  of  English,  vigor- 
ously urges  the  use  of  imitation  in  the  teaching  of 
English  composition.  Listen  to  his  words :  "The  imi- 
tative tendency  and  power  of  the  child  is,  whether  he 
realizes  it  or  not,  the  supreme  instrument  in  the 
teacher's  power.  .  .  .  Through  it  more  than  any 
reasoning  or  other  power,  the  child  learns  to  lisp  and 
speak,  learns  the  higher  uses  of  language,  learns  to 
write  well,  to  form  a  style,  to  borrow,  to  take  fire,  to 
admire  and  fathom  and  interpret  the  work  of  the 
masters." 

The  testimony  and  experience  of  many  of  our  mas- 
ters of  style  as  to  the  soundness  of  the  imitative 
method  of  learning  to  write  certainly  furnish  eminent 
authority  for  using  this  device  in  teaching  pupils  the 
art  of  writing.  The  words  of  Stevenson  are  familiar 
to  all:  "Whenever  I  read  a  book  or  a  passage 
that  particularly  pleased  me,  in  which  a  thing  was 
said  or  an  effect  rendered  with  propriety,  in  which 
there  was  either  some  conspicuous  force  or  some  happy 
distinction  in  the  style,  I  must  sit  down  at  once  and 
set  myself  to  ape  and  follow  it.  I  was  unsuccessful,  and 
I  knew  it ;  and  tried  again,  and  was  again  unsuccessful 
and  always  unsuccessful;  but  at  least  in  these  vain 
bouts  I  got  some  practice  in  rhythm,  in  harntony,  in 
construction,  and  the  cooperation  of  parts.  I  have 
thus  played  the  sedulous  ape  to  Hazlitt,  to  Lamb,  to 


142  ENGLISPI    PROBLEMS 

Wordsworth/  to  Sir  Thomas  Browne,  to  Defoe,  to 
Hawthorne,  to  Montaigne,  to  Baudelaire,  and  to  Ober- 
mann.  This,  like  it  or  not,  is  the  way  to  learn  to 
write ;  whether  I  have  profited  or  not,  that  is  the  way. 
It  was  so  Keats  learned,  and  there  was  never  a  finer 
temperament  for  literature  than  Keats;  it  was  so,  if 
we  could  trace  it  out,  that  all  men  have  learned  5  and 
that  is  why  a  revival  of  letters  is  always  accompanied 
or  heralded  by  a  cast-back  to  earlier  and  fresher 
models.  Perhaps  I  hear  someone  cry  out,  'But  that  is 
not  the  way  to  be  original.'  It  is  not;  nor  is  there  a 
way  but  to  be  born  so.  Nor  yet,  if  you  are  born 
original,  is  there  anything  in  this  training  that  shall 
clip  the  wings  of  your  originality.  There  can  be  none 
more  original  than  Montaigne,  neither  could  any  be 
more  unlike  Cicero;  yet  no  craftsman  can  fail  to  see 
how  much  the  one  must  have  tried  in  his  time  to 
imitate  the  other.  Burns  is  the  very  type  of  a  prime 
force  in  letters;  he  was  of  all  men  the  most  imitative. 
Shakespeare  himself,  the  imperial,  proceeds  directly 
from  a  school." 

Mr.  Miller,  Principal  of  the  North  Western  High 
School  of  Detroit,  defending  the  use  of  imitation  in 
learning  to  write,  quotes  this  last  sentence  of  Steven- 
son's and  continues,  "By  judiciously  imitating  sporting 
Kyd  on  the  one  hand  and  on  the  other  studying  the 
cadences  of  'Marlowe's  mighty  line,'  he  (Shake- 
speare) learned  to  steer  from  grave  to  gay,  from  livel}'' 
to  severe,  in  a  fashion  which  overjoyed  all  his  con- 
temporaries except  Greene,  who  expressed  his  grief  by 
calling  the  predatory  William  'an  upstart  crow  beau- 
tified with  our  feathers.'    It  was  true.    It  is  also  true 


INTERPRETATION    OF   LITERATURE  143 

that  Wilhelm  Tell  and  Becket  remind  one  in  countless 
ways  of  Macbeth  and  Hamlet.  Theocritus  taught 
Milton  the  plan  of  Lycidas,  Virgil  the  art  of  writing 
bucolics,  and  Tennyson  the  melodies  of  (Enone,  The 
influence  of  Demosthenes  is  clear  enough  in  the 
Areopagitica ;  and  the  plan  of  Burke's  Conciliation 
is  essentially  the  same  as  that  of  Cicero's  Manilian 
Law.  'The  more  I  wonder  the  less  I  can  imagine,' 
wrote  Francis  Jeffrey  to  Thomas  B.  Macaulay, 
'where  you  picked  up  that  style.'  If  he  had  in- 
vestigated a  little  more  and  wondered  a  little  less, 
he  would  have  found  the  answer  in  Demosthenes 
and  Cicero,  in  Thucydides  and  Tacitus,  in  Homer 
and  Dante,  in  the  King  James  Bible,  in  Milton, 
Addison,  and  Burke.  Macaulay's  sentence  struc- 
ture has  been  aped  with  some  success  by  John  Richard 
Green,  John  Churton  Collins,  John  Bach  McMaster, 
James  B.  Angell,  and  Sir  George  Otto  Trevelyan,  not 
to  mention  several  hundreds  of  less  skillful  disciples, 
while  the  admirable  construction  of  his  frameworks 
and  clearness  of  his  paragraph  structures  have  in- 
fluenced many  other  imitators,  including  Francis 
Parkman  and  John  Fiske.  Even  Thomas  Carlyle  con- 
fesses that  he  got  his  style  by  imitating  his  father's  ' 
speech.  Did  Irving  learn  nothing  from  Addison, 
Bryant  from  Wordsworth,  Lowell  from  Tennyson, 
Whittier  from  Burns,  or  Holmes  from  Pope?  Think 
of  Burns's  obligation  to  Spenser,  Pope,  and  Fergusson. 
Indeed,  the  only  poets  I  am  accustomed  to  think  of  as 
not  being  imitators  are  Homer  and  Kipling.  But  has 
not  the  latter  imitated  Will  Carle  ton  and  Bret  Harte? 
And  does  not  he  somewhere  sing  of  the  former: 


144  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

'When  'Omer  smote  *is  bloomin'  lyre, 
'Wd  'card  men  sing  by  land  and  sea; 

And  wot  'e  thought  *e  might  require 
*E  went  and  took,  the  same  as  me/  " 

It  would  be  easy  to  expand  this  catalogue,  but  it 
is  needless.  The  conclusion  is  irresistible.  The  way 
to  learn  to  write  is  to  use  models. 

But  it  will  be  objected  that  although  that  is  all  very 
well  in  theory,  in  practice  it  will  not  work.  These  men 
were  geniuses.  They  assimilated  their  models.  The 
models  will  assimilate  the  average  student. 

The  answer  to  this  is  that  they  do  not  assimilate 
the  average  student,  provided  they  are  wisely  graded 
to  fit  his  capacity.  It  is  granted  that  he  cannot  imitate 
as  wholes  Macbeth,  Carlyle's  Burns,  Ivanhoe,  Silas 
Marner,  or  most  of  the  other  classics  that  are  in  our 
reading  lists.  To  ask  him  to  try  to  do  this  would  be 
foolish.  But  he  can  imitate  fragments  even  of  these, 
and  there  is  a  whole  world  of  material,  outside  of  these, 
which  may  be  used  as  the  basis  for  exercises  that  are 
at  once  profitable  and  delightful. 

From  our  experience  in  the  use  of  conscious,  de- 
liberate, rational  imitation  of  literary  masterpieces  as 
one  method  of  teaching  composition  we  may  sum- 
marize the  benefits  to  the  pupil  somewhat  roughly  as 
follows : 

1.  It  gives  new  zest  to  the  theme  work;  the  attack 
of  the  pupil  becomes  vigorous;  the  very  effort  neces- 
sary to  attain  the  definite  end  counts  for  much  in 
forming  the  habit  of  working  actively,  in  shaking  off 
the  indifference  the  pupil  so  often  brings  to  his  task. 

2.  The  pupil  must  work  with  his  eye  on  the  object. 


INTERPRETATION   OF   LITERATURE  145 

Necessarily  this  helps  to  form  habits  of  close  observa- 
tion, to  develop  accuracy  of  expression,  to  enrich  the 
vocabulary,  to  rouse  a  craftsman-like  pleasure  in  the 
work  itself. 

3.  It  stimulates  and  strengthens  the  imagination. 

4.  It  aids  interpretation  and  appreciation  of  the 
masterpiece.  The  success  of  the  pupil's  imitation  is 
often  the  measure  of  his  appreciation. 

5.  It  gratifies  the  pupil's  instinct  for  construction. 
He  looks  upon  his  product  a^  an  achievement.  Ambi- 
tion is  roused,  pride  stimulated  when  he  feels  he  can 
do  something. 

6.  It  promotes  rather  than  retards  individuality. 
The  good  or  even  indifferent  imitation  is  to  the  stu- 
dent at  this  particular  stage  a  creation.  This  becomes 
an  aid  to  invention,  for  power  to  copy  more  than  one 
style  will  necessarily  result  in  power  to  combine  and 
assimilate,  and  ultimately  in  power  to  invent  a  style  of 
one's  own. 

Illustrations  of  imitative  work  by  pupils: 

PRAIRIE    TWILIGHT 

Low  dips  the  broad-browed  sun,  his  crimson  trail, 
Back  flinging,  lights  with  plumes  of  flame  the  sky, 
And  high  o'erhead  the  circling  bullbats  cry 
Their  low,  wild  notes,  and  crying,  e'er  bewail 
The  thought  that  days  must  end  and  nights  prevail. 
Across  the  plain  the  murmuring  nightwinds  sigh. 
And  coyotes  flaunt  their  challenge,  shrill  and  high. 
While  from  the  east  the  purple  shadows  sail. 
I  see  the  hand  of  Him  who  set  the  stars 
And  all  the  suns  to  sing  their  way  through  space, 
And  feel  the  Love  that  fashions  and  unbars 
The  souls  of  all  this  erring  human  race. 
In  this  deep  calm  of  soft,  descending  night 
My  spirit  reaches  upward  to  the  Light. 


146  ENGLISH  PROBLEMS 

ON     LAMB 

(Imitation  of  Lamb's  Style) 
No,  gentle  reader,  the  above  title  does  not  refer  to  that  dish 
which  so  often  graces  our  Sabbath  festal  board;  it  refers  to 
that  little  gentleman  who  lived  in  the  last  century,  Charles  Lamb, 
bookkeeper  and  essaj^st.  All  day  long  he  wrote  dry  figures  in 
musty  books ;  but  at  night  he  was  about  his  self-imposed  task  of 
writing  his  deliciously  humorous,  fantastically  imaginative  essays. 
There  is  something  about  the  works  of  most  writers  that  gives  one 
a  sense  of  inferiority,  but  there  is  nothing  of  the  sort  in  those  of 
Lamb.  His. works  are  like  the  discourse  of  a  friend  during  a 
cozy  evening  chat;  there  is  nothing  of  the  man  of  letters,  of  the 
pedant,  about  him.  In  fact,  they  are  the  words  of  a  friend ;  for  to 
Lamb  is  given  the  sacred  boon  of  friendship,  friendship  with  the 
whole  world.  I  say  is,  for  Lamb  is  alive ;  that  part  of  him  which 
can  never  die  he  poured  forth  upon  the  written  pages  of  his 
essays,  and  it  speaks  to  us  every  time  we  pick  up  the  book.  He 
will  never  die  as  long  as  the  English  language  is  read,  or  there  is 
a  translation  of  his  essays  extant.  The  world  is  better,  cleaner, 
for  having  once  held  Lamb.  All  who  love  books,  love  him,  and 
not  least  among  them  is  myself,  the  Lyon  who  hopes  to,  some 
day,  lie  down  with — the  Lamb. 

JACK    AND    JILL     (reVISEd) 

The  mighty  quest  of  Jack,  the  direful  spring 
Of  all  his  woes,  0  heavenly  Goddess,  sing! 
The  mighty  quest  which  caused  the  youth  to  fall. 
And  suffer  grievous  pain,  and  loudly  bawl! 
Declare,  0  Muse,  in  what  ill-fated  hour 
Befell  the  doom,  from  what  offended  power? 
The  mother  of  the  youth  did  vainly  bail, 
But  got  no  drop  of  water  from  her  pail. 
"Most  noble  Jack,  and  thou  too,  lovely  Jill, 
Now  take  this  pail  and  go  to  yonder  hill; 
And  there  do  thou  the  mighty  god  implore 
That  he  will  water  give,  for  we  need  more." 
He  heard  her  words,  and  with  a  mighty  spring 
He  left  the  portal,  whilst  the  maid  did  bring 
Tlie  wooden  pail,  in  which  the  gift  to  bear 
If  from  the  favVing  power  there  came  a  share.  - 
With  eager  steps  they  went  along  their  way, 


INTERPRETATION    OF   LITERATURE  147 

And  when  they  reached  the  hill,  thus  did  they  pray : 
"0  heavenly  one,  pray  lend  a  favoring  ear, 
And  give,  most  gracdous  power,  cool  water  clear; 
In  times  gone  past  thou'st  aided  Jack  and  Jill, 
Grant  now  our  prayer,  if  'tis  thy  sovereign  will." 
The  prayer  was  heard,  the  f  av'ring  god  attends, 
And  with  his  arm  his  mighty  bow  he  bends; 
An  arrow  flew,  the  earth  was  rent  in  twain. 
The  crystal  waters  flowed,  and  flowed  again. 
Then  swift  the  youth  and  maiden  filled  their  pail, 
And  turned  their  footsteps  dowmvard  to  the  dale. 
With  joyful  hearts  they  went  along  their  way. 
(Between  them  did  the  bucket  gently  sway.) 
Meanwhile  high  up  in  heaven  Jove's  consort  fair 
Looked  down  Avith  jealous  eyes  upon  the  pair; 
And  as  they  swiftly  went  their  downward  way. 
Thus  did  she  to  the  king  of  heaven  pray : 
"Almighty  Jove,  thou  wieldest  sovereign  pow'r; 
Cause  yonder  merry  youth  to  rue  the  hour 
When  from  my  peacock's  nest  the  eggs  he  stole ; 
Pray  let  him  slip,  and  down  this  steep  hill  roll." 
The  father  heard,  and  bent  his  awful  head. 
Called  forth  his  winged  messenger,  and  said, 
"Son  of  Maia,  wing  thy  way  below; 
Approach  the  hill  from  whence  the  waters  flowj 
Bring  dire  mishap  to  yonder  careless  boy — 
Let  him  be  punished  for  his  former  joy." 
He  spoke,  and  turned  his  mighty  head  away, 
While  Maia's  son  to  earth  sped  on  his  way. 
Invisible  to  them,  the  god  did  place 
A  stone  right  in  their  Avay,  to  stay  their  pace. 
Now  careless  Jack  approached  with  sprightly  tread, 
But  tripped,  and  quickly  rolled  upon  his  head; 
And  little  Jill,  Avith  mighty  efforts  brave. 
Did  try,  but  fell  ere  she  the  pail  could  save. 
But  quick  recovering  from  this  dreadful  plight. 
She  ran,  right  swift  of  pace,  with  all  her  might, 
And  brought  some  rescuing  heroes  to  the  hill 
Where  poor  Jack  lay,  unconscious,  white,  and  still. 
Him  in  their  arms  they  bore,  so  limp  and  white. 
And  brought  him  to  the  city  in  this  plight. 


14a  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

The  kindly  matrons  gathered  round  the  lad, 

And  Avrung  their  hands,  and  sighed,  "Alas !  too  bad  I" 

However,  'mongst  that  mighty  throng  were  some 

Who,  knowing  what  was  best,  said,  "Take  him  home." 

Then  toward  his  home  did  they  the  boy  bear. 

And  round  his  body  wept,  and  tore  their  hair. 

At  length  their  tears  were  stayed,  they  turned  away, 

And  went,  some  back  to  work,  and  some  to  play. 

Thus  ceased  the  tears  that  o'er  his  fall  were  shed. 

And  Jack  quite  calmly  rested  in  his  bed. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Chubb,  P.     TJie  Teaching  of  English,  "Versification,"   Chapter 

XVIII;  also  page  31. 
Dewey,  J.    Democracy  and  Education,  page  43. 
Pedagogical  Seminary: 

Simons,  S.  E.    "Imitative  Writing  in  the  High  School,"  De- 
cember, 1910. 
The  English  Journal: 

Frank,  Maude  M.  "Dramatization  of  High-School  Classics," 
December,  1912;  "Ballad  Writing  in  the  High  School," 
June,  1914. 


DRAMATIZATION  A  MEANS  OF  APPRECIATION 

Primitive  man  and  the  child  are  essentially  dramatic. 
Experiences  in  the  life  of  the  race  are  acted  out  by  the 
bard  as  he  sings  of  the  deeds  of  the  great  men  of  the 
tribe,  or  by  the  braves  as  they  circle  in  the  war-dance 
round  the  camp  fire.  Just  so  the  child  by  gesture  and 
look  and  pose  acts  out  his  own  experiences. 

Says  Professor  Grosse:  "The  peculiar  feature  of  the 
drama  is  the  representation  of  an  event  simultaneously 
by  speech  and  mimicry.  In  this  sense  nearly  every 
primitive  tale  is  a  drama,  for  the  teller  is  not  simply 
relating  history,  but  he  enlivens  his  words  with  ap- 
propriate intonations  and  gestures.     .    .     .    Children 


INTERPRETATION    OF   LITERATURE  149 

and  primitive  peoples  are  unable  to  make  any  narration 
without  accompanying  it  with  the  appropriate  de- 
meanor and  play  of  gesture."  The  impulse  to  im- 
personate animate  or  inanimate  objects — it  is  imma- 
terial which — is  second  nature  to  the  young  of  hll  races 
and  cultures. 

Mr.  Brander  Matthews  in  his  Study  of  the  Drama, 
cites  two  amusing  illustrations  of  this  impulse  from  the 
play  of  American  children.  The  first  is  the  case  of 
three  little  boys  "playing  automobile."  The  eldest  was 
the  chauffeur,  the  next  was  the  machine  itself,  while 
the  baby  in  the  rear  represented  the  lingering  odor  of 
gasoline.  The  other  anecdote  describes  the  "offering  up 
of  Isaac"  by  two  little  children,  a  boy  and  a  girl,  aged 
respectively  three  and  four  years.  "They  were  found 
in  the  ruins  of  an  old  house,"  says  Mr.  Matthews,  "and 
in  a  sad  voice  the  boy  explained  that  they  were  offering 
up  little  Isaac.  A  broken  toy  was  Isaac.  A  brick  under 
a  bush  was  the  ram.  They  told  how  they  had  built  a 
fire  under  Isaac,  admitting  at  once  that  the  fire  was 
only  make-believe.  And  when  they  were  asked  *Who 
was  Abraham?'  the  little  girl  promptly  answered,  *We 
was.' " 

Many  of  the  games  of  our  children  are  indeed  neither 
more  nor  less  than  crude  dramas  imitating  the  life  of 
grown-ups. 

The  children  of  the  older  civilizations  of  China  and 
Japan,  as  well  as  the  children  of  the  American  Indian, 
the  Eskimo,  and  the  Bushman  of  Australia,  delight  in 
impersonating  the  hero  of  their  special  tradition  and  in 
imitating  in  their  play  the  life  about  them.  The  con- 
structive imagination  is  the  glory  of  childhood.    The 


150  ENGLISH    PROBLEMS 

province  of  make-believe  is  the  particular  territory  of 
the  child. 

Dramatic  presentation  as  a  vehicle  for  instruction 
was  utilized  as  far  back  as  the  history  of  culture  ex- 
tends. The  pagan  priest  and  the  Christian  Church 
father  seized  upon  the  love  of  the  dramatic  innate 
in  human  nature  and  made  it  serve  their  special  ends. 
Through  the  dramatic  appeal  each  taught  his  own 
peculiar  cult  or  religion.  The  Bacchic  festival  of  song 
and  dance  was  the  expression  of  the  worship  of 
Bacchus,  and  the  Mystery  and  the  Miracle  play  taught 
the  sacred  stories  of  Christ  and  the  saints.  The  re- 
ligious idea  yielded  gradually  to  the  popular  desire  for 
amusement;  the  holy  day  became  the  holiday. 

There  has  been  incidental  use  of  the  drama  as  a 
means  of  instruction  in  the  schools  ever  since  there 
have  been  schools.  In  England,  companies  of  boy 
actors  were  at  an  early  date  connected  with  the  great 
public  schools.  Among  them  were  the  famous  "Boys 
of  the  Grammar  School  at  Westminster,"  and  the 
"Children  of  Paul's."  "The  influences  which  pro- 
duced these  (companies),"  says  Alexander  F.  Chamber- 
lain, "survives  and  flourishes  today  in  the  fondness  of 
high-school  pupils  and  university  students  for  dramatic 
performances."  Neither  was  the  drama  entirely 
neglected  in  the  early  American  schools,  if  we  may 
judge  by  a  curious  old  volume  by  one  Charles  Stearns, 
preceptor  of  the  Liberal  School  at  Lincoln,  Massachu- 
setts, entitled  Dramatic  Dialogues  for  Use  in  the 
Schools,  published  in  1798.  The  author  of  this  volume 
insists  upon  the  pedagogical  and  ethical  value  of  dra- 
matic presentation.     In  the   Introduction   he   says : 


INTERPRETATION    OF   LITERATURE  151 

"The  rudest  nymphs  and  swains  by  practicing  on 
rhetoric  will  soon  acquire  polite  manners,  for  they  will 
often  personate  the  most  polite  character.  And  though 
the  surly  majesty  of  some  male  despots  among  us  may 
envy  the  graces  of  rhetoric  to  women,  because  they 
feel  themselves  already  outdone  by  women  in  every 
other  excellence ;  yet  it  is  certain  that  a  clear,  genteel 
manner  of  expressing  themselves  is  a  vast  advantage 
to  women  in  forming  that  important  alliance  which  is 
to  last  through  life/'  Each  play  or  dramatic  dialogue 
included  in  the  volume  is  intended  to  teach  some  vir- 
tue, as  is  plainly  indicated  on  the  title  page,  for  in- 
stance: The  Woman  of  Honor  (goodness  of  heart 
and  veracity  of  speech) ;  The  Mother  of  a  Family 
(patience) ;  The  Gamester  (mildness  of  temper) ;  The 
Male  Coquette  (absurdity  of  lying  and  hypocrisy); 
Roncesvalles  (self  government). 

Not  until  today,  however,  under  the  teachings  of 
the  new  psychology,  has  any  attempt  been  made  to 
use  the  dramatic  instinct  of  the  child  in  a  definite, 
systematic  way  as  an  aid  in  the  teaching  of  English 
literature.  We  now  recognize  that  the  child's  instincts 
and  innate  tendencies  are  to  be  reckoned  with,  that 
they  may  indeed  serve  as  guides  or  as  points  of  de- 
parture in  our  educative  process.  At  the  high-school 
age  the  dramatic  and  the  imitative  instincts  are  still 
vital  forces  in  the  life  of  the  boy  and  girl.  Dramatizar 
tignj^  which  appeals  to  both  the  dramatic  and  the  imi- 
tative instincts,  is  therefore  an  excellent  device  for  the 
teaching  of  literature.  In  its  power  to  rouse  interest, 
to  stir  the  imagination,  to  create  illusion,  to  induce  ap- 
preciation of  the  masterpiece,  and  thus  to  quicken  a 


152  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

love  for  literature,  dramatization  has  no  equal.  For 
literature  is  life,  the  life  of  other  times  and  peoples — 
real  or  fantastic — and  life  is  action.  Whatever  helps 
the  boy  to  visualize  the  life  of  other  days  will  help  him 
to  vitalize  the  people  of  those  days.  Dramatization 
makes  the  past,  present;  the  then,  now;  gives  us  a 
mimic  world ;  actually  turns  literature  into  life.  Hence 
the  dramatic  appeal  is  perhaps  the  most  compelling 
in  the  teaching  of  certain  types  of  masterpieces.  The 
dramatization  of  any  bit  of  literature  "is  the  best  pos- 
sible return  which  the  children  can  make  of  their 
literary  training  and  at  the  same  time  the  best  pos- 
sible means  of  securing  their  appreciation  of  the  story 
they  use,"  says  Porter  Lander  MacClintock  in  Litera- 
ture in  the  Elementary  School. 

Much  is  being  done  today  in  the  way  of  dramatic 
treatment  of  literature  in  the  elementary  school,  but 
much  remains  yet  to  do.  The  custom  of  having  the 
child  act  out  his  little  songs  and  stories  in  the  first 
few  grades  is  rather  widespread.  But  as  he  progresses 
from  grade  to  grade,  less  and  less  dramatic  work  is 
done,  until,  when  he  reaches  the  high  school,  there  is 
scarcely  any  systematic  attempt  to  relate  such  work 
to  the  study  of  literature.  It  is  true  that  many  high 
schools  have  dramatic  associations  and  give  creditable 
performances  during  the  year  for  the  purpose  of  en- 
tertainment, but  it  is  also  true  that  very  few  high 
schools  are  doing  dramatic  work  in  connection  with  the 
study  of  literature.  The  notable  exception  of  the 
Ethical  Culture  School  of  New  York  City,  of  course, 
comes  to  mind,  and  there  are  certain  public  high 
schools  scattered  here  and   there  over   the   United 


INTERPRETATION   OF   LITERATURE  153 

States  where  something  is  being  done  along  this  line. 
Just  now,  however,  we  need  an  organized  correlation 
of  the  dramatic  and  the  literary  in  our  English  courses. 
Such  correlation  is  not  only  possible  but  is  most  ef- 
fective in  the  teaching  of  English.  President  G.  Stan- 
ley Hall  of  Clark  University  says:  "A  recent  writer  de- 
mands a  theater  in  every  high  school,  where  young 
people  should  be  encouraged  to  read  and  sometimes  act 
parts,  and  to  assume  in  fancy  the  roles  of  the  charac- 
ters of  great  men."  While  we  can  hardly  hope  for  "a 
theater  in  every  high  school"  as  yet,  still,  even  out  of 
very  crude  conditions,  ways  and  means  may  be  de- 
vised for  making  both  possible  and  effective,  dramatic 
presentations  of  scenes  from  the  literature  studied. 
Dramatization  allows  vicarious  living.  We  learn 
through  experience.  Life  gives  some  of  us  few  experi- 
ences. Literature  gives  all.  Through  dramatic  inter- 
pretation of  literature  the  pupil  gets  vicarious  experi- 
ence. He  actually  lives  at  other  times  and  in  other 
places  and  personalities.  Life  broadens  out  before  him. 
He  learns  to  appreciate. 

The  following  scenes  are  suggested  for  classroom 
dramatization,  chosen  here  and  there  from  the  classics 
suitable  for  junior  and  senior  high-school  students. 
Many  of  these  have  already  been  tried  out  with  a  meas- 
ure of  success.  For  instance,  in  American  literature: 
a  scene  in  which  Captain  John  Smith  and  Pocahontas 
are  picturesque  figures;  a  meeting  between  Mme. 
Winthrop  and  her  suitor  Samuel  Sewall  ^ased  on  his 
Diary  entries;  a  dramatization  of  Irving's  The  Adven- 
ture of  My  Aunt  in  which  the  unique  procession  mar- 
shaled by  "My  Aunt"  in  search  of  the  burglar  always 


154  ENGLISH  PROBLEMS 

provokes  a  laugh;  scenes  from  The  Last  of  the  Mo- 
hicans, Little  Women,  Ramona,  Colonel  Carter  of 
Cartersville ;  the  short  stories  of  Poe,  Hawthorne, 
Davis,  and  Henry.  In  English  literature  scenes  from 
various  novels — Silas  Marner,  Treasure  Island,  A  Tale 
of  Two  Cities,  Ivanhoe,  Henry  Esmond,  and  from  the 
Iliad,  the  Odyssey,  the  Idylls  of  the  King,  and  Sohrab 
and  Rustum — may  be  chosen.  » 

Dramatization  of  certain  Bible  stories  is  also  sug- 
gested as  being  of  special  interest  to  junior  high-school 
students.  Take  the  story  of  David  and  Goliath,  for  in- 
stance. 

One  method  of  procedure  is  first  to  read  the  story 
aloud.  Then  let  the  class  offer  suggestions  as  to  work- 
ing it  out.  The  class  under  the  direction  of  the  teacher 
might  develop  it  in  some  such  way  as  the  following: 

DAVID     AND    GOLIATH 

Dramatize  the  story  in  five  scenes. 
The  characters  will  be: 

The  army  of  the  Philistines 

The  army  of  Israel 

David 

Goliath 

Jesse,  David's  father 

Eliab,  David's  eldest  brother 

Saul,  King  of  Israel 

Scene  I 

The  armies  are  assembled. 

Let  the  class  divide  and  group  themselves  on  either  side  of 
the  room. 

"What  will  represent  the  valley  between  the  armies? 

Goliath  appears  and  gives  his  challenge.  Then  he  and  his  army 
retire. 

There  is  great  confusion  among  the  Israelites. 

Let  the  class  make  up  the  conversation  of  two  or  three  of  the 
Israelites  showing  their  fear  of  Goliath. 


INTERPRETATION   OF   LITERATURE  155 

Scene  II 
This  scene  occurs  between  David  and  his  father. 
David^s  father  sends  him  to  the  Israelites. 
Pupils  invent  the  conversation. 

Scene  III 
The  two  armies  are  in  battle  array. 
David  arrives  at  the  trench  of  the  Israelites. 
Goliath  challenges  the  Israelites  again. 

David  inquires  of  his  brethren,  "What  shall  be  done  to  the  man 
that  killeth  this  Philistine?" 
They  tell  him. 

David's  brother  Eliab  rebukes  him  for  coming. 
David  replies. 
Certain  men  go  out  to  report  to  the  King  what  David  has  said. 

Scene  IV 
David  appears  before  Saul. 
He  offers  to  kill  Goliath. 
Saul  approves. 
He  gives  David  armor. 
David  accepts  it.     Then  he  puts  it  on. 
What  does  he  choose? 
How  is  he  armed  ?  • 

Scene  V 
The  contest  occurs  between  David  and  Goliath  in  the  presence 
of  the  armies. 

The  class  works  out  the  scene. 

This  cooperative  dramatic  method  vitalizes  the 
study  and  offers  a  good  start.  At  first  a  dramatization 
may  be  entirely  worked  out  by  the  class  as  in  the  illus- 
tration just  given.  At  other  times  it  may  be  begun  by 
the  class  and  finished  by  various  groups  of  pupils.  In 
no  case,  however,  should  the  teacher  fail  to  have  these 
dramatic  bits  performed  in  the  classroom,  for  actual 
presentation  before  the  pupils  of  scenes  from  literature, 
perhaps  more  than  any  other  device,  kindles  interest 
and  aids  appreciation. 


156  V  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

An  interesting  adaptation  of  the  dramatic  method 
for  the  purpose  of  visualizing  the  poetry  read  in  the 
senior  high  school  is  offered  in  the  following  treatment 
of  Milton's  U Allegro  and  II  Penseroso.  It  consists  of 
a  series  of  tableaux  presented  simultaneously  with  the 
reading  of  the  passages  which  are  thus  visualized. 

MILTON'S    L'ALLEGRO    AST)    IL    PENSEROSO 

The  Reader,  dressed  in  cap  and  gown  to  impersonate  the  young 
Milton,  stands  far  to  one  side  of  the  stage,  so  that  be  in  no  way 
becomes  a  part  of  the  stage  picture. 

L'Allegro 

Tableau  I 

Banishment  of  Melancholy 

The  stage  presents  a  spring  landscape.     Melancholy,  clad  in 

somber  robes,  enters  and  moves  about  as  if  seeking  a  safe  retreat 

during   the  reading   of   the   opening   lines.     At   the   conclusion 

Melancholy  disappears. 

Reading  (lines  1  through  10). 

Tableau  II 
Summons  of  Mirth 
As  Melancholy  disappears.  Mirth  <eomes  tripping  in  followed 
by  her  companions,  Jest,  Jollity,  Quips,  Cranks,  Wiles,  Nods, 
Becks,  Smiles,  Sport,  Laughter,  and  Liberty,  appropriately 
gowned  in  Greek  robes,  flowers  garlanded  about  them.  At  the 
closing  lines, 

Come,  and  trip  it,  as  you  go, 
On  the  light  fantastic  toe; 
And  in  thy  right  hand  lead  with  thee 
The  mountain-nymph,  sweet  Liberty, 
Mirth  takes  Liberty  by  the  hand  and  leads  in  a  merry  dance. 

(Music) 
Reading  (lines  11  through  36). 

Tableau  III 
Country  Dance  on  the  Green 
As  the  curtain  rises,  many  girls  and  boys  come  trooping  in, 
dressed  in  picturesque  country  fashion.     One  or  two  have  violins 


INTERPRETATION    OF   LITERATURE  157 

on  which  they  are  playing  a  merry  tune.  They  form  for  dancing, 
and  as  the  lines  are  read,  go  through  the  figures  of  a  country 
dance. 

Reading  (lines  91  through  99). 

Tableau  IV 
Fireside  Scene 
A  merry  group  of  country  lads  and  lasses  is  seated  about  a 
blazing  fireplace,  cracking  nuts,  drinking  ale,  and  telling  tales. 
Reading  (lines  100  through  116).  ' 

Tableau  V 
L^A-Uegro 
The  scene  is  a  spring  landscape.    L' Allegro  is  discovered  alone, 
seated  on  a  rustic  bench  listening,  entranced^  to  music,  as  the  con- 
cluding lines  of  the  poem  are  read. 
Reading  (lines  135  through  poem). 

II  Penseroso 

Tableau  I 
Banishment  of  eToys 
The  scene  presents  an  autumn  landscape.     Several  girls  gaily 
dressed  enter  and  frolic  about  the  stage  during  the  reading.    All 
rush  madly  out  as  the  last  line  is  read. 
Reading  (lines  1  through  10). 

Tableau  II 
Summons  of  Melancholy 
As  the  lines  for  this  tableau  are  read.  Melancholy,  arrayed  in 
soft,  clinging  robes  of  somber  hue,  enters  "with  even  step,  and 
musing  gait."  She  is  followed  by  her  companions.  Peace,  Quiet, 
Leisure,  Fast,  and  Contemplation.  They  join  in  a  stately  march, 
which  they  execute  with  much  grace  to  slow  music. 

Reading  (lines  11  through  54;  omitting  17  through  22  and  25 
through  30). 

Tableau  III 
Fireside  Scene 
II  Penseroso,  dressed  as  a  medieval  student,  sits  on  a  rude  bench 
before  a  grate  fire,  which  has  almost  died  out.     An  open  book 
is  on  his  lap,  but  he  is  lost  in  contemplation  and  gazes  at  the 
flickering  logs  as  the  lines  are  read. 
Reading  (lines  73  through  84). 


158  ENGLISH    PROBLEMS 

Tableau  IV 
II  Penseroso 
II  Penseroso.  garbed  in  monastic  robe,  prayer  book  in  hand, 
paces  back  and  forth  with  measured  tread,  while  solemn  music  is 
softly  played. 

Reading  (lines  155  through  poem).  < 

Would  not  some  such  treatment  be  a  fitting  climax 
to  the  study  of  these  poems?  Would  it  not  offer  a 
welcome  relief  from  the  cut  and  dried  parallel  outlines 
of  the  poems  with  which  we  have  all  been  familiar  for 
lo!  these  many  years? 

Other  classics  to  which  some  such  treatment  might 
be  applied  are:  Chaucer's  Prologue;  Longfellow's 
Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn;  the  Iliad;  and  the  Odyssey. 

When  the  dramatization  is  written  out,  the  exercise 
becomes  of  value  in  the  composition  class  as  well  as  in 
the  literature  hour. 

Pupils  in  the  upper  classes  may  be  occasionally  re- 
quired to  invent  scenes  similar  in  type  to  those  selected 
from  the  classroom  work,  based  on  themes  of  interest 
to  the  school.  This  might  lead  to  the  production 
of  a  class  play,  ultimately  supplanting  the  time-worn 
histories  and  prophecies  under  which  we  have  all  suf- 
fered. 

This  classroom  dramatization  of  school  classics  serves 
as  an  excellent  preparation  for  the  school  festival  or 
pageant  which  should  be  a  feature  of  each  year's  work 
in  both  junior  and  senior  high  school.  Subjects  for  the 
school  pageant  may  be  drawn  from  the  literature 
studied  or  from  history.  Or  the  festival  may  be 
seasonal,  taking  for  its  theme  the  advent  of  spring  or 
of  autumn.  The  object  of  the  festival,  pageant,  or 
dramatization  which  is  based  on  the  classics  is  to  aid 


INTERPRETATION   OF   LITERATURE  159 

the  interpretation  of  literature;  the  purpose  of  the 
historical  pageant  is  to  carry  over  to  the  present  the 
ideals  of  the  past,  to  arouse  patriotism  and  civic  pride ; 
the  aim  of  the  seasonal  festival  is  to  stir  the  imagina- 
tion of  the  child,  to  bring  him  closer  to  nature,  to  show 
the  meaning  of  life  and  death  in  the  recurrent  cycle  of 
the  seasons. 

For  details  and  suggestions  concerning  the  prepara- 
tion and  presentation  of  the  school  festival  see  Mr. 
Chubb's  book,  Festivals  and  Plays,  in  which,  undoubt- 
edly, he  and  his  collaborators  have  said  the  last  wore! 
on  the  subject. 

FOR  FURTHER  THOUGHT 

1.  Discuss  dramatization  as  a  means  of  vitalizing  the  English 
class. 

2.  Discuss  dramatization  as  a  test  of  appreciation. 

3.  Work  out  the  dramatization  of  Jacob  and  Esau. 

4.  Suggest  other  Bible  stories  for  dramatization. 

5.  Make  a  list  of  scenes  from  the  novels  and  poems  read  in  the 
literature  class  that  are  suitable  for  dramatization. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Chubb,  P.     Festivals  and  Plays  in  Schools  and  Elsewhere. 

Johnson,  Gertrude  E.     Choosing  a  Play. 

Miller,  Elizabeth  E.    The  Dramatization  of  Bible  Stories. 

Simons,  S.  E.,  and  Orr,  C.  I.    Dramatization. 

AYoodbury,  S.  E.    Dramatization. 

The  English  Journal: 

Bair,  F.  H.     "The  Bible,  the  Greeks,  and  Oral  English," 

April,  1918. 
Drummond,  A.  M.     "Plays  for  the  Time,"  Vol.  VIII,  page" 
419;  "An  Adventure  In  Dramatics,"  Vol.  VIII,  page  623. 
Storm,  lola  (Mrs.).    "The  Eighth-Grade  Play,"  April  1918. 
Pendelton,  Charles   S.     "Teaching  the  Bible  in  the  Junior 
High  School,"  December,  1918. 


160  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

The  Illinois  Bulletin: 

Widger,   H.   De  F.     "People  of  the   State  of  Illinois  vs. 
The  Four  Verb  Brothers,  Messrs.  Be,  Do,  See,  and  Go/* 
December,  1918. 
Wood,    Charlotte   R.      "High-School   Dramatization,"   May, 
1919. 
The  Drama  Leafjue  Monthly: 

Bohn,  W.  E.     "Teaching  Drama  in  the  High  School,"  Sep- 
tember, 3917. 
Stratton,  C.     "Play  Production  in  the  High  School,"  Sep- 
tember, 1917. 
Thompson,  Gene.    "Drama  in  the  High  School,"  September, 
1918. 
A  List  of  Plays  for  Secondary  Schools  and  Colleges  of  the 
Drama  League  of  America  and  Committee  on  Plays  for  Schools 
and  Colleges  of  the  N.  C.  T.  E.  (1916). 


CHAPTER    FIVE 

SOME  SPECIAL  PROBLEMS 

American  Literature.  The  Magazine.  The  World  War  and  the 
English  Class.  The  History  of  Literature.  The  Teaching  of 
Poetry.    The  Drama. 

AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

There  are  at  least  three  good  reasons  why  the  study 
of  American  literature  should  be  a  part  of  every  senior 
high-school  English  course. 

First,  patriotism  demands  the  study  of  the  native 
literature.  The  American  boy  should  indeed  be  aware 
of  the  achievements  of  his  countrymen  in  letters  as 
well  as  in  war,  in  government,  in  industry;  and  an  ac- 
quaintance with  the  writings  of  American  authors  will 
stimulate  race-pride  in  a  new  direction. 

Second,  the  independent  reading  of  the  pupil  makes 
a  study  of  American  literature  almost  imperative.  For 
the  high-school  student's  interest  is  emphatically  in 
the  present-day  author,  and  his  reading  is  chiefly  from 
contemporary  productions — mostly  American,  which 
he  gets  through  the  magazines.  Hence  he  needs  di- 
rection and  guidance  in  this  field  as  much  as  anywhere. 

Third,  general  culture  will  not  allow  neglect  of 
American  literature  in  the  high  school.  Fragments 
from  Whittier,  Longfellow,  Lowell,  Hawthorne,  Irving, 
Holmes,  and  perhaps  Cooper  are  in  the  possession 
of  the  pupil  when  he  enters  the  senior  high  school; 
he  may  get  something  more  in  a  desultory  fashion 

161 


162  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

of  Irving,  of  Hawthorne,  of  American  poets  during 
his  course  there;  it  is  very  doubtful  if  many  ever 
get  anything  more  in  college.  The  college  graduate's 
lamentable  ignorance  of  the  literature  of  his  own  peo- 
ple, as  shown  in  teachers'  examinations,  would  seem  to 
uphold  this  last  statement.  Frequently  Longfellow, 
Lowell,  Hawthorne  were  mere  names  absolutely  de- 
void of  association  of  any  kind.  The  high  school, 
therefore,  is  the  place  to  give  the  pupil  a  definite, 
well-ordered  course  in  American  literature.  There  the 
knowledge  which  the  pupil  brings  with  him  should  be 
systematized  and  brought  into  relation  with  the  rest 
of  the  product  of  American  literature. 

Mr.  Percy  Boynton,  in  The  Nation  for  May  4,  1916, 
says:  "To  foster  in  a  whole  generation  some  clear 
recognition*  of  other  qualities  in  America  than  its  big- 
ness, and  of  other  distinctions  between  past  and  pres- 
ent than  that  they  are  far  apart,  is  to  contribute 
toward  the  consciousness  of  a  national  individuality 
which  is  the  first  essential  of  national  life.''  And  he 
believes  that  American  literature  studied  in  its  en- 
tirety can  do  this  thing.  A  big  aim  for  the  study,  a 
big  achievement  from  the  study — certainly,  the  high- 
est justification  for  its  place  in  the  curriculum. 

The  purpose  of  a  high-school  course  in  American 
literature  should  be  to  give  a  fair  view  of  what  has 
been  done  and  is  still  being  done  in  the  domain  of 
American  letters,  and  to  stimulate,  through  illustrative 
reading,  further  study  and  appreciation  of  American 
authors.  Representative  writers  of  each  period  may  be 
studied  through  illustrations  from  their  works.  The 
main  facts  in  the  lives  of  the  writers  are  to  be  given ;  the 


SOME    SPECIAL   PROBLEMS  163 

historical  background  should  be  pictured;  the  relation 
between  the  life  of  the  times  smd  the  literature  re- 
sulting, noted.  The  character  of  such  work  is  ex- 
tensive rather  than  intensive.  The  pupils  must,  from 
the  nature  of  the  case,  make  use  of  the  library.  And 
the  mere  handling  of  many  books  is  valuable  training. 
A  splendid  opportunity  is  also  offered  for  the  prepara- 
tion of  special  topics.  Such  a  course  gives  frequent 
chance  for  oral  reading,  which  is  indeed  the  most  .ef- 
fective means  of  inducing  appreciation  of  the  author 
under  consideration.  Says  Professor  Rose  Colby  in 
Literature  and  Life  in  the  School,  'The  best  response 
to  be  secured  by  the  teacher  from  the  student  in  the 
work  on  any  bit  of  literature  is  the  fullest  interpreta- 
tive vocal  rendering  of  it."  Present-day  writers  should 
be  stressed  because  of  the  pupil's  interest  in  the  living 
author,  and  also  because  he  should  be  led  to  see  that 
literature  is  still  in  the  making. 

Let  our  literature  be  studied  as  the  expression  of  the 
American  spirit.  Since  the  distinctive  contribution  of 
America  to  world  literature  is  the  short  story,  this 
might  serve  as  the  point  of  departure.  Begin  with  the 
short  story.  Read  stories  typical  of  the  New  England 
spirit — stories  of  Mary  E.  Wilkins-Freeman  and  Sarah 
Orne  Jewett;  of  the  South — F.  Hopkinson  Smith,  Joel 
Chandler  Harris;  of  the  middle  west — Mark  Twain;  of 
the  far  west— Bret  Harte.  Read  those  of  0.  Henry, 
Zona  Gale,  Jack  London,  Booth  Tarkington,  and 
Richard  Harding  Davis  for  the  type  of  American  life 
each  presents.  Follow  this  study  with  the  reading  of 
Hawthorne,  Poe,  and  Irving.  Emphasize  the  literary 
product  of  the  great  New  England  group  of  writers  of 


164  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

the  middle  and  later  nineteenth  century  through  read- 
ing representative  works  of  Emerson,  Thoreau,  Long- 
fellow, Holmes,  Lowell,  Whittier,  and  some  of  the  lesser 
lights.  The  literature  of  the  South  as  expressing  the 
southern  ideal  of  life  and  beauty  should  be  gained 
through  reading  Lanier,  Harris,  and  F.  Hopkinson 
Smith. 

Reading  should  be  the  basis  of  this  work  in  class  and 
out.  Certain  longer  books  should  be  read  at  home  and 
reported  on  in  class;  for  instance,  Ben  Hur,  Hugh 
Wynne,  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,  Margery  Daw,  Silas 
Lapham,  Little  Women,  Colonel  Carter  of  Cartersville, 
The  Story  of  Daisy  Miller,  The  Trail  of  the  Lonesome 
Pine,  Ramona,  The  Call  of  the  Wild. 

A  study  of  American  patriotic  prose  might  be  made 
by  discussing  President  Wilson's  War  Message  and 
other  recent  speeches  and  then  reading  public  utter- 
ances of  other  contemporary  statesmen,  Roosevelt, 
Root,  Taft.  From  these  glance  backward— Lincoln, 
Grady,  Webster,  Franklin,  Washington  should  be  read. 

It  is  advisable  to  introduce  the  pupils  to  American 
contemporary  verse.  War  poems  found  in  periodicals 
offer  a  point  of  attack  here.  Says  Mr.  H.  E.  Fowler  in 
his  article  on  "American  Literature  for  American 
Schools"  published  in  The  English  Journal  for  Decem- 
ber, 1917,  "One  of  the  most  promising  signs  in  the 
hterary  trend  of  the  present  is  our  revival  of  interest 
in  poetry,  evidence  of  the  idealism  which  we  hope  will 
some  day  triumph  over  our  national  selfishness.  Van 
Dyke,  ]\Ioody,  Lindsay,  Sterling,  Robinson,  Masters, 
Frost — no  longer  are  these  names  familiar  only  to  the 
elect.     Publishers  and  public  librarians  tell  us  there 


SOME    SPECIAL   PROBLEMS  165 

is  a  growing  demand  for  the  modern  poets,  not  only  on 
the  part  of  the  initiated,  but  by  all  classes  of  readers. 
If  this  renascence  of  American  poetry  is  to  do  its  part  i 
in  checking  our  pernicious  materialism,  we  must  en- 
courage acquaintance  with  our  living  poets."  And  the 
interest  has  grown  since  Mr.  Fowler  wrote  these  words. 
The  war  has  stimulated,  beyond  estimating,  interest  in 
the  living  voice  of  our  poets. 

The  very  early  period  in  our  literary  history  should 
be  given  the  pupils  through  lectures  and  readings  by 
the  teacher.  It  may  be  well  to  clinch  the  study  here 
by  assigning  special  topics,  covering  the  most  im- 
portant personalities  in  their  relation  to  the  times  and 
to  the  part  their  work  plays  in  the  development  of 
literary  art  in  America. 

And  perhaps  as  a  pleasant  ending  to  the  course,  a 
brief  study  might  be  made  of  the  contemporary  Amer- 
ican drama.  Group  work  here  is  suggested,  various 
groups  working  on  various  plays  and  presenting 
through  their  leaders  scenes  of  their  choice  to  the 
class.  Certain  plays  of  Middleton,  Clyde  Fitch,  Moody, 
Mackaye,  Peabody-Marks,  Kennedy,  Belasco,  Augus- 
tus Thomas,  Edward  Sheldon  will  yield  results  for  this 
study.  Indeed  a  reading  of  some  of  the  modern 
moralities,  such  as  Every  Woman,  Loyalty,  Experience, 
may  serve  as  a  stimulus  for  individual  or  class  produc- 
tion of  an  original  morality.  Such  was  the  case  in  a 
class  in  the  Western  High  School  of  Washington  several 
years  ago,  and  The  English  Journal  published  one  of  the 
same  kind. 

As  already  intimated,  the  course  in  American  litera- 
ture in  the  high  school  should  be  largely  a^  reading 


166  ENGLISH    PROBLEMS 

course,  with  enough  background  and  atmosphere  to 
place  personalities  in  their  proper  periods.  Pupils  are 
advised  to  keep  notebooks,  which  should  be  highly  in- 
dividualistic in  character,  recording  the  reading  done 
and  the  personal  reaction  of  the  reader  to  any  par- 
ticular work,  and  ^containing  clippings  and  pictures  of 
interest  to  the  pupil.  Such  a  course  may  be  made 
indeed  most  profitable  and  pleasant. 

It  may  be  a  one-year  or  a  one-semester  course.  It 
may  be  placed  in  the  tenth  or  in  the  twelfth  year. 
Naturally,  methods  of  instruction  vary  according  to 
the  maturity  of  the  student  when  taking  up  the  study. 

In  the  twelfth  year,  of  course,  pupils  are  older,  and 
their  reaction  to  the  study  is  more  mature.  They  can 
get  far  more  from  such  authors  as  Thoreau  and  Emer- 
son than  can  the  boy  or  girl  of  the  tenth  year;  they 
can  read  more  deeply  into  their  motives  and  ideals. 
And,  too,  the  twelfth  year  gives  a  chance  in  most  high 
schools  for  correlation  with  work  in  American  history 
which  is  generally  placed  in  the  last  year  of  the  senior 
high  school. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  first  year  of  the  senior  high 
school  is  a  fine  place  for  a  one-semester  course  in  ex- 
tensive reading,  and  that  is  what  the  American  Litera- 
ture high-school  course  should  be.  Such  a  course  is 
absolutely  new  in  the  experience  of  the  pupil  and  there- 
fore lures  him  on  and  on,  and  the  practice  in  reading 
broadly  which  the  course  offers  will  stand  the  pupil  in 
good  stead  in  his  next  two  years  of  work  in  the  Eng- 
lish class.  But  chief  of  all  reasons  for  placing  the  work 
in  the  tenth  year  is  that  by  so  doing  many  more  of  our  > 
young  people  are  "exposed"  to  the  course  than  by  de- 


SOME    SPECIAL   PROBLEMS  167 

ferring  the  study  until  the  last  year  of  the  senior  high 
school.  For  patriotic  as  well  as  cultural  reasons  as 
many  of  our  young  people  as  possible  should  know 
what  their  countrymen  and  countrywomen  have  done 
and  are  still  doing  in  the  realm  of  English  letters. 

FOR   FURTHER   THOUGHT 

1.  Outline   a  one-semester  course   in   American   literature   for 
tenth-year  pupils. 

2.  Outline  a  one-semester  course   in   American   literature   for 
twelfth-year  pupils. 

3.  Plow  should  they  differ? 

4.  Plan  a  course  in  American  patriotism  based  on  the  utter- 
ances of  our  public  men  from  James  Otis  to  President  Wilson. 

5.  Make  a  selection  of  the  poems  of  patriotism  in  American 
literaiy  history  including  the  present-day  writers. 

6.  Classify  the  recent  war  literature  of  America  for  school  use. 

7.  Suggest  a  list  of  American  poems  induced  by  the  .World 
War  suitable  for  memory  work  in  the  American  literature  class. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

The  English  Journal: 

Fowler,  H.  E.    "American  Literature  for  American  Schools/' 

December,  1917. 
Parsons,    E.    D.      The    English    Teacher    and    Patriotism," 

March,  1919. 
Stephenson,    Nellie    A.      "Required    American    Literature," 

November,  1915;   "English  in  the  Light  of  the  War" 

(R.  T.),  April,  1918. 


THE  MAGAZINE 

The  study  of  American  literature  offers  a  good  intro- 
duction to  the  study  of  the  magazine.  'There  is  the 
great   field   of   periodical   literature,    covering   every 


168  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

human  interest  and  wielding  immeasurable  power  in 
shaping  American  thought,"  says  Mr.  Fowler.  "Our 
definition  of  literature  must  be  broad  enough  to  in- 
clude the  magazine  ....  and  though  we  stretch 
the  term  ^literature'  to  the  limit,  let  us  include  the  daily 
paper,"  he  adds.  Conditions  in  the  literary  life  of 
America  certainly  justify  it,  for,  as  Professor  Barrett 
Wendell  says,  "The  illustrated  monthly  magazines 
which  circulate  by  hundreds  of  thousands,  and  go  from 
one  end  of  the  country  to  the  other,  provide  the  ordi- 
nary American  citizen  of  today  with  his  nearest  ap- 
proach to  literature."  The  modern  magazine  does,  in- 
deed, dominate  the  literary  life  of  the  average  Amer- 
ican teday.  He  has  time  for  a  casual  glance  at  the 
daily  news  and  the  morning  editorial  at  his  breakfast 
or  on  his  way  to  business.  Ten  or  fifteen  minutes  can 
be  spared  now  and  then  in  the  evening  or  on  Sunday  or 
a  holiday  for  a  short  story  or  a  striking  article  in  some 
monthly  or  weekly.  But  he  has  neither  time  nor  in- 
clination for  much  continuous  reading  of  longer  tales 
or  elaborated  treatises.  Besides,  the  cooperation  of  the 
economic  idea  of  division  of  labor  with  the  educational 
ideal  of  specialization  has  made  it  possible  for  the 
magazine  to  furnish  an  intellectual  diet  suited  to  all 
tastes.  Moreover,  our  greatest  writers  of  short  stories 
and  poems  are  those  whose  work  has  appeared  or  is  still 
appearing  in  our  magazines.  Indeed  the  history  of  the 
American  magazine  is  the  history  of  American  litera- 
ture. Periodical  literature  preceded  or  rather  pro- 
duced an  American  literature,  for  it  was  the  magazine 
that  created  the  audience  for  the  author.  As  Henry 
Mills  Alden  says,  "The  catholicity  of  magazines  and 


SOME    SPECIAL   PROBLEMS  169 

their  hospitality  to  young  writers  have  done  more  than 
all  other  influences  to  build  up  our  literature."  Again, 
many  of  the  masterpieces  of  American  literature  first 
found  a  reading  public  through  the  magazine.  Bryant'^ 
"Thanatopsis"  and  'To  a  Water  Fowl"  appeared  in 
the  North  American  Review;  Halleck's  ''Marco 
Bozzaris"  and  Bryant's  "Death  of  the  Flowers"  were 
published  in  the  New  York  Review;  Poe's  "Raven" 
was  first  published  in  the  New  York  Mirror;  Long- 
fellow's "Psalm  of  Life"  came  out  in  the  Knicker- 
bocker Magazine;  Holmes's  first  two  installments  of 
the  Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast  Table  were  published  in 
the  New  England  Magazine,  the  later  ones  in  the  At- 
lantic Monthly;  Whitman's  first  literary  success 
"Death  in  a  School  Room"  came  out  in  the  Democratic 
Review;  Lowell's  first  series  of  Biglow  Papers  was 
published  in  the  Boston  Courier;  E.  E.  Hales's  The 
Man  Without  a  Country  in  the  Atlantic  Monthly; 
Howells's  Venetian  Life  in  the  Boston  Advertiser; 
and  these  are  but  a  few  instances.  And  today  all  of 
our  war  poems  and  much  of  the  other  literature  pro- 
duced by  the  war  are  appearing  in  current  periodicals. 
The  editorial  history  of  American  magazines  dis- 
closed the  following  interesting  facts:  Franklin,  in 
1741,  started  the  General  Magazine,  which  ran  for  six 
months;  Charles  Brockden  Brown  established  the 
Literary  Magazine,  which  lived  for  five  years ;  Richard 
Henry  Dana,  Edward  Everett,  James  Russell  Lowell, 
and  Charles  Eliot  Norton  were  successive  editors  of 
the  North  American  Review,  founded  in  1815,  whose 
purpose  was  "the  cultivation  of  literature  and  the  dis- 
cussion of  philosophy" ;  the  Knickerbocker  was  l^nown 


170  ENGLISH    PROBLEMS 

as  Irving's  magazine  from  the  fact  that  he  was  its 
chief  contributor;  Poe  was  editor  of  the  Southern 
Literary  Messenger,  then  of  the  Gentleman's  Magazine, 
which  afterwards  became  Graham's,  the  most  popular 
periodical  between  the  years  1840  and  1850  and  to 
which  Longfellow,  Lowell,  and  Whittier  sent  their  ma- 
terial; Margaret  Fuller,  Emerson,  and  George  Ripley 
conducted  the  Dial;  Nathaniel  Parker  Willis,  the  most 
picturesque  figure  in  ante-bellum  periodical  literature, 
was  editor  of  Peter  Parley's  Token  and  the  Mirror, 
and  established  in  1839  the  New  York  Corsair,  "a 
Gazette  of  Literature,  Art,  Dramatic  Criticism, 
Fashion,  and  Novelty."  The  Atlantic  Monthly  num- 
bers among  its  editors  many  famous  writers,  from 
James  Russell  Lowell  to  Bliss  Perry,  until  recently  its 
distinguished  editor.  And  up  to  the  time  of  his  death 
William  Dean  Howells  occupied  the  Easy  Chair  of 
Harper's  Monthly. 

The  magazine  adapts  itself  to  the  rush  and  hurry  of 
American  life;  it  fits  in  with  our  scheme  of  things. 
The  magazine — which  may  be  picked  up  and  thrown 
down  at  will — has  forced  to  the  shelf  the  book  which 
requires  leisure  and  quiet  concentration,  especially  the 
book  that  has  stood  the  test  of  ages.  We  still  have 
our  libraries  fitted  out  with  the  five-foot  shelf,  but  the 
books  too  often  remain  on  the  shelf,  while  our  study 
tables  are  strewn  with  magazines  of  all  sorts  and  colors. 
The  magazine  is  today  most  emphatically  playing  a 
part  in  the  history  of  American  literature  which 
threatens  to  become  the  leading  role.  It  has  truly 
served  a  noble  purpose  in  American  letters.  Through 
its  efforts  literature  has  been  democratized;  the  read- 


SOME    SPECIAL   PROBLEMS  171 

ing  public  has  been  enormously  increased.  The  devel- 
opment of  literature  extensively  through  the  impulse 
given  it  by  the  magazine  is  beyond  measure.  But  has 
literature  lost  or  is  it  losing  intensively  because  of  its 
widened  scope?  Does  our  great  and  growing  de- 
pendence on  periodical  literature  signify  danger  ahead? 
Must  our  literature  in  order  to  arouse  interest  present 
a  constantly  changing  moving-picture  show?  Shall 
we  lose  our  power  to  appreciate  and  enjoy  sustained 
efforts  through  over-indulgence  in  the  short  story  and 
brief  magazine  article?  Are  we,  indeed,  already  miss- 
ing something  of  sweetness  and  light  because  of  con- 
stant catering  to  the  prevailing  magazine  taste  of  the 
reading  public?  Today  it  is  said  "we  lack  the  leisure 
to  grow  wise,''  but  surely  these  questions  must  make 
us  pause,  must  furnish  food  for  thought,  must  induce 
us  to  sound  a  note  of  warning  to  the  coming  genera- 
tion. Are  we  not,  therefore,  justified  in  treating  the 
magazine  seriously  in  our  high-school  English  course? 
Can  we  not,  perhaps,  thus  help  the  pupil  to  resist  the 
lure  of  the  by-paths  and  hold  to  the  broad  highway  of 
real  literature? 

For  introducing  magazine  study  the  device  of  sending 
pupils  on  a  search  through  attic  and  cellar  for  bound 
volumes  of  old  magazines  to  discover  stories  and 
articles  by  our  well-known  authors  of  today  works  well. 
They  thus  discover  first  hand  that  the  magazine  was 
the  vehicle  for  the  first  expression  of  thoughts  of  many 
of  our  famous  men  and  women  of  today.  They  can 
apply  this  discovery  to  current  numbers  of  the  magazine 
and  by  inference  can  conclude  that  some  at  least  of 
the  contributors  of  today  will  be  standard  writers  of 


172  ENGLISH    PROBLEMS 

tomorrow.  Thus  they  will  find  out  for  themselves  thdt 
literature  is  still  in  the  making. 

Many  high  schools  are  using  the  Literary  Digest, 
the  Independent,  the  Outlook,  the  World's  Work  as 
regular  texts  in  their  classes.  One  day  a  week  is  usually 
devoted  to  a  discussion  of  the  current  news.  Often 
the  class  is  divided  into  groups.  Each  group  chooses 
a  certain  topic  or  class  of  topics  to  be  reported  on  and 
selects  a  leader.  These  leaders  arrange  their  group 
programs  and  are  in  turn  responsible  to  the  class  chair- 
man, who  is  elected  by  vote  of  the  class.  Sometimes 
several  pupils  are  unassigned  to  any  group  but  are  con- 
sidered members  at  large.  They  are  responsible  for  the 
informal  discussion  which  follows  each  report.  But 
all  members  are  supposed  to  participate  actively  in 
every  phase  of  the  work,  and  the  success  or  failure 
of  the  chairman  is  measured  largely  by  the  number  of 
intelligent  questions  that  are  asked  about  the  reports, 
and  points  that  are  spontaneously  contributed  to  the 
discussion. 

It  has  been  found  by  experiment  that  these  "digest" 
days  are  one  of  the  most  interesting  features  of  the 
course.  And  they  have  accomplished  much  in  giving 
the  pupil  no  little  power  to  face  his  audience  and  talk 
to  the  point  for  two  or  three  minutes,  to  answer  ques- 
tions accurately,  and  to  ask  questions  intelligently. 
And  one  of  the  most  valuable  by-products  of  such  a 
course  is  that  through  it  the  pupil  learns  how  to  read 
the  press  for  a  purpose;  and  surely  in  these  days  of 
multiple  sheets  we  need  to  be  able  to  get  the  gist  of  a 
newspaper  or  magazine  article  almost  at  a  glance.  To- 
day when  all  are  interested  in  every  issue  of  the  press, 


SOME    SPECIAL   PROBLEMS  173 

we  need  more  than  ever  before  a  course  which  shall 
train  our  pupils  to  be  intelligent  and  ready  readers. 
Is  not,  therefore,  a  study  of  current  periodical  literature 
an  indispensable  part  of  all  high-school  English  work? 

FOR  FURTHER  THOUGHT 

1.  Discuss  the  use  of  the  newspaper  in  the  English  class. 

2.  Discuss  the  current  periodical  as  an  aid  in  socialization  of 
the  class. 

3.  Discuss  the  value  of  group  work  on  magazine  day. 

4.  Outline  a  course  in  contemporary  writers  for  a  fourth-year 
class. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

The  English  Journal: 

Abbott,  Allan.     "A   High-School   Course  in   Contemporary 

Literature,"   September,  1913. 
Bowman,  James  C.    "The  Use  of  the  Magazine  in  English,*' 

May,  1916. 
Dimorier,  W.  E.    "Newspaper  Week,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  170. 
Edgerton,  F.   W.     "A  Recent  Experiment  with  Magazine 

Literature,"  May,  1912. 
Fowler,  H.  E.    "American  Literature  for  American  Schools," 

December,  1917. 
Moe,  Maurice  W.     "Magazine  Poetiy  in  the   Classroom," 

October,  1915. 
Simons,  S.  E.    "American  literature  and  the  Modem  Maga- 
zine in  the  High  School,"  June,  1913. 
The  English  Leaflet: 

Cunningham,  W.  H.    "The  Possibilities  of  the  Short  Story," 

February,  1916. 


THE  WORLD  WAR  AND  THE  ENGLISH  CLASS 

The  study  of  current  periodicals  in  our  English 
classes  during  the  World  War  meant  nothing  more  nor 
less  than  the  discussion  of  war  problems  and  war 
literature.     And   their   continued   study   means   and 


174  ENGLISH    PROBLEMS 

will  mean  for  a  long  time  to  come  a  study  of  the 
post-war  problems,  of  all  the  social,  economic,  and 
political  legacies  left  by  that  great  upheaval.  Things 
will  never  be  just  the  same  even  in  our  English  classes. 
Much  of  our  composition  work  was  motivated  by 
events  of  the  war;  our  classes  were  socialized  through 
this  bond  of  interest.  Our  pupils  have  acquired  the 
habit  of  bringing  world  events  to  class  as  material  for 
oral  and  written  discussion,  and  the  teacher  who  can 
lack  for  live  subjects  for  themes  today  is  scarcely  to 
be  found. 

The  reading  of  pupils  was  given  a  new  direction  dur- 
ing the  war.  Interest  in  public  men  induced  reading 
of  their  speeches,  reading  that  was  done  with  keen 
interest.  That  interest  we  have  now  to  work  with. 
And  that  interest  will  not  die — it  should  not  be  allowed 
to  die.  Let  us  cultivate  it  and  produce  classes  of 
readers  as  our  graduates — readers  of  the  best  that  is 
being  written  today  on  public  questions  and  public 
life.  The  interest  aroused  in  war  poetry  may  be  used 
as  a  point  of  departure  for  the  poetry  of  other  days 
and  other  men.  Pedagogically  speaking,  the  benefit 
of  the  World  War  to  our  English  course  is  beyond 
measuring. 

But  alone  and  beyond  all  this,  the  effect  of  studying 
the  war  wdth  our  pupils  was  seen  in  the  development 
of  patriotism  and  in  the  establishment  of  a  right  under- 
standing of  conditions.  The  patriotic  stir  caused  by 
the  reading  of  some  of  the  President's  speeches  in  a 
certain  class  composed  of  German-born  boys  was  in- 
deed remarkable.  And  this  work  must  go  on.  The 
testimony  of  many  English  teachers  was  that  the  study 


SOME    SPECIAL   PROBLEMS  176 

of  public  speeches  made  during  the  war  and  the  study 
of  war  literature,  fiction  and  poetry,  had  not  only 
vitalized  the  composition  classes,  given  training  in  the 
direct  and  accurate  use  of  the  English  language, 
opened  the  eyes  of  the  pupils  to  the  fact  that  literature 
is  still  in  the  making,  thrown  new  interest  into  the 
literature  of  the  past — but  that  it  had  rendered  a 
positive  national  service  in  developing  the  patriotism 
of  our  students,  a  service  than  which  none  could  be 
higher  at  the  present  crisis  in  the  history  of  America 
and  the  world.  This  development  came  about  through 
making  the  boys  and  girls  aware  of  the  facts.  We 
have  not  a  theory  confronting  us  now  but  a  situation, 
and  that  situation  must  be  understood  in  all  its  aspects. 
The  youth  of  today,  who  will  be  responsible  for  the 
government  of  tomorrow,  must  be  taught  these  things 
if  we  would  be  governed  aright.  It  is  our  solemn  duty 
as  educators  to  see  to  it  that  no  one  escapes.  We  might 
almost  declare  that  the  whole  duty  of  the  school-man 
today  is  to  give  our  boys  and  girls  a  sane,  sound  course 
in  Democracy  as  it  is  being  worked  out  by  America  for 
the  world.  This  is  not  the  task  of  the  history  teacher 
alone  but  inheres  in  the  work  of  all  of  us  today.  And 
we  English  teachers  have  really  a  great  opportunity 
before  us.    Let  us  not  hesitate  to  make  the  most  of  it! 

FOR  FURTHER  THOUGHT 

1.  Discuss  the  use  in  the  English  class  of  President  Wilson's 
speeches  concerning  the  war. 

2.  Make  a  list  of  war  fiction  that  you  would  suggest  for  outside 
reading. 

3.  Make  a  list  of  war  poems,  English  and  American,  that  you 
might  use  with  a  senior  high-school  class;  in  a  junior  high-school 


176  ENGUSH   PROBLEMS 

4.  Outline  a  brief  course  in  World  "War  literature  I'or  the  Eng- 
lish class.    Ways  and  means  of  using  it. 

5.  Suggest  a  new  Peace  Day  Program  for  both  junior  and 
senior  high  schools. 

6.  Suggest  programs  for  the  celebration  of  Allies'  Day  in  both 
junior  and  senior  high  schools. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

T7i9  English  Journal: 

Abbott,  Allan.    "The  English  Tea<?her  and  the  World  War," 

January,  1918. 
Hai-vey,  P.  Casper.     "What  the  War  Has  Done  for  Me," 
-      June,  1918  (R.  T.). 
Hunt,  C.  W.     "The  Child  and  the  Book  in  War  Times," 

October,  1918. 
Ross,  Florence.    "An  Experiment,"  March,  1918  (R.  T.). 
Ward,  C.  H.    "The  English  Teacher's  Opportunity,"  June, 
1918. 
The  English  Leaflet: 

de  MiUe,  A.  B.    "A  Selected  List  of  War  Books  for  Boys 
and  Girls,"  January,  1919  (p.  7). 


THE  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE 

Educators  are  grouped  into  two  camps  on  the  sub- 
ject of  the  teaching  of  the  history  of  literature  in  the 
high  school.  Members  of  the  one  advocate  first  and 
foremost  in  the  literature  class  of  the  upper  high-school 
years  the  orderly  teaching  of  the  history  of  literature 
as  a  subject  per  se.  Members  of  the  other  would  dis- 
pense with  such  a  course  as  a  cut  and  dried  substitute 
which  teaches  about  books  instead  of  giving  the  books 
themselves  as  matter  for  study. 

Is  not  a  middle  groimd  the  one  to  choose?  The  high- 
school  graduate  should  certainly  be  familiar  with  the 


SOME   SPECIAL   PROBLEMS  177 

general  trend  of  the  development  of  the  history  of 
literature  in  both  England  and  America.  He  should 
know  the  great  names ;  he  should  be  able  to  place  them 
in  their  proper  periods.  The  pupils  should  know  some- 
thing of  the  spirit  of  the  times  that  produced  this  or 
that  literary  genius.  They  should  come  to  know  that 
the  literature  of  a  period  is  determined  by  the  economic 
and  social  life  of  the  times.  But  the  only  way  they  can 
find  this  out  is  to  study  the  art  product  of  the  author 
in  its  relation  to  the  age  which  called  it  forth.  Hence, 
the  history  of  literature  or  the  study  of  the  lives  of 
authors  should  never  be  viewed  as  a  thing  apart  from 
the  writings  of  the  men  and  women  who  reflect  their 
times  in  this  manner.  A  good  collection  of  repre- 
sentative selections  from  the  writings  of  the  great  is 
an  indispensable  basis  for  the  high-school  study  of  the 
history  of  literature.  This  can  be  used  in  connection 
with  a  brief  literary  history  and  the  two  studied  to- 
gether. Further  outside  readings  can  be  made  in  the 
case  of  the  really  great  writers. 

Only  the  noted  contributors  to  our  literature  should 
be  studied  in  the  high  school.  Touch  only  the  high 
points.  A  list  of  red-letter  authors  might  be  made  and 
followed.  Minor  writers  should  be  passed  over. 
Definite  instruction  in  the  method  of  using  history  of 
literature  texts  should  be  given.  Indeed,  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  study  of  the  history  of  literature,  the 
English  class  might  well  resolve  itself  into  a  super- 
vised study  period. 

Pupils  must  be  led  to  get  essentials  and  to  disregard 

.non-essentials.    And  such  a  method  of  study  cannot  be 

cultivated  over  night.    Hence,  prolonged  class  study 


178  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

with  the  teacher  is  necessary.  Pupils  must  be  exposed 
to  the  method,  and  the  exposure  must  be  a  good,  long 
time-exposure  before  the  camera  will  register  much 
that  is  of  moment.  In  special  topic  reports  on  the 
lives  of  the  great  authors,  lead  the  pupil  to  look  for 
striking,  unique  characteristics  of  the  men  and  women 
under  examination.  It  is  the  distinctive  feature  that 
we  can  remember.  Look  for  this.  This  will  stick, 
whereas  the  dry-as-dust  biography  giving  date  and 
place  of  birth,  education,  works,  will  utterly  fail  to 
excite  the  pupil's  gray  matter  into  even  a  receptive 
state. 

The  very  early  periods  in  both  American  and  Eng- 
lish literature  might  well  be  covered  thus.  Class  study 
and  illustrative  readings  with  the  teacher  will  be  found 
profitable  here.  Care  should  be  taken  later  to  make  all 
the  assignments  in  the  text  and  of  illustrations  definite. 
Pupils  should  be  taught  how  and  what  to  skip.  Liter- 
ary maps  are  indispensable  for  such  a  course.  And 
the  supplementary  classroom  described  by  Mr.  Allan 
Abbott  in  The  Reorganization  Bulletin  (page  114) 
would  be  an  invaluable  aid  in  visualizing  periods  and 
works  studied.  Mr.  Abbott  suggests  a  library  class- 
room, not  assigned  to  regular  classes  but  available  for 
occasional  use  by  any  class.  This  room  should  be  fitted 
out  with  movable  seats,  a  small  stage,  a  victrola,  and 
a  reflectoscope.  TVTien  the  class  period  of  any  par- 
ticular class  is  to  be  devoted  to  dramatization  exercises 
or  lantern-slide  talks  by  pupils,  the  class  could  con- 
veniently meet  in  this  room.  It  is  not  hard  to  see  how 
such  an  equipment  would  serve  as  a  determining  factor 
in  making  vital  the  literary  data  taught. 


SOME    SPECIAL  PROBLEMS  179 

The  course  may  be  taken  up  chronologically  or  it 
may  be  followed  through  a  study  of  types — the  essay, 
the  lyric,  the  epic,  the  novel,  the  drama,  the  short 
story.  It  may  start  with  the  present  and  look  back- 
ward toward  beginnings,  or  it  may  follow  the  evolu- 
tionary idea.  Ways  and  means  are  varied  and  many. 
In  such  a  course  four  things  should  be  noted : 

1.  It  is  all-important  that  the  start  should  be 

just  right.  This  can  be  accomplished  only 
through  much  cooperative  work  with  the 
teacher  in  the  class  period. 

2.  The  teaching  of  isolated  dates  and^  facts  is 

wasted  time. 

3.  The  vitalization  of  the  study  of  the  lives  of 

authors  can  be  accomplished  only  by  the  use 
of  illustrative  material. 

4.  Some  time  should  be  given  to  the  study  of 

present-day  writers. 

FOR  FURTHER  THOUGHT 

1.  Should  the  study  of  the  history  of  literature  in  the  high 
school  be  merely  incidental? 

2.  Discuss  the  relative  value  of  teaching  the  history  of  litera- 
ture chronologically  or  by  the  development  of  types. 

3.  Why  should  the  study  of  illustrative  material  be  carried  on 
simultaneously  with  the  study  of  biography? 

4.  How  should  history  become  the  background  for  the  study  of 
the  history  of  literature? 

5.  Make  lists  of  English  dramas,  novels,  and  poems  which  illu- 
minate the  history  of  the  times  in  which  they  were  produced. 

6.  Discuss  the  advisability  of  starting  the  study  with  present- 
day  writers  and  then  looking  backward. 

7.  Should  the  author's  life  be  studied  before  or  after  his  book 
is  read  by  the  class?   Give  reasons. 


ISO  ENGLISH    PROBLEMS 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 
2'he  English  Journal: 

Aiken,  W.  M.    "Types  in  the  Study  of  Literature,"  April, 
1917. 

Barnes,  W.    "Anthologies  in  the  High  School/'  April,  1919. 

Hinchman,  W.  S.    "The  Fringes  of  Literature,"  April,  1917. 

Lodor,  E.     "Shall  We  Teach  the  History  of  Literature  in 
the  High  School?"    Vol.  VI,  p.  60L 

Pound,  Louise.    *^hat  the  History  of  Literature  Is,"  Sep- 
tember, 1918. 


THE  TEACHING  OF  POETRY 

/.  In  the  Junior  High  School 
Poetry  is  given  a  very  definite  place  in  the  senior 
high-school  course  of  study.  It  should  have  the  same 
consideration  in  the  junior  high  school.  The  problem 
of  teaching  it  is  everywhere  the  same,  especially  as  to 
aun,  but  there  will  be  differences  of  emphasis,  method, 
and  selection.  Rightly  taught,  the  value  of  poetry  in 
education  cannot  be  too  strongly  stated.  By  what 
other  means  can  so  much  be  done  to  train  and  stimulate 
the  intellectual,  the  esthetic,  and  the  moral  activities 
of  the  human  spirit?  What  greater  thing  can  we  do 
for  our  children  than  to  create  or  develop  in  them  a 
love  of  beauty?  To  bring  the  minds  of  pupils  under 
the  influence  of  beauty  is  to  bring  them  under  the 
reign  of  law.  It  is  to  give  them  a  resource  against 
dull  materialism,  and  a  weapon  of  defense  in  the 
spiritual  encounters  that  life  brings^  'Toetry  is  the 
first  and  last  of  all  knowledge — it  is  as  immortal  as 
the  heart  of  man."  It  is  a  transcript  of  life.  To  know 
poetry  is  to  know  life,  and  to  know  life  is  to  be  educated 
in  the  truest  sense  of  the  word. 

If  we  accept  Addison's  statement  that  the  great  func- 
tion of  poetry  is  to  awaken,  stimulate,  or  change  human 


SOME    SPECIAL  PROBLEMS  181 

feeling,  then  it  is  clear  that  the  response  to  a  poem 
must  be  emotional.  The  true  lover  of  poetry  will 
know  what  poetry  has  done  for  him,  and  will  base 
his  aims  in  teaching  it  on  that  experience.  They  may 
be  stated  as  follows:  (1)  appreciation  and  enjoyment 
of  the  individual  poem,  (2)  comprehension  of  its 
meaning,  (3)  sympathetic  response  to  its  emotional 
appeal,  and  (4)  enjoyment  of  the  beauty  of  its  dic- 
tion, form,  and  style.  This  emphasis  upon  the  emo- 
tional aspect  of  poetry  must  not  be  construed  to  mean 
neglect  of  the  intellectual  side  of  the  work,  nor  blind- 
ness to  the  necessity  for  hard  work.  Teachers,  how- 
ever, must  guard  against  emphasizing  the  fact  ele- 
ment in  poetry  rather  than  the  value  element,  and 
must  realize  that  neither  historical,  geographical,  nor 
philological  research  is  of  the  essence  of  poetry. 

Teaching  poetry  to  children  should  be  the  easiest  and 
most  delightful  task  imaginable.  Most  children  have 
a  natural  love  for  it.  They  instinctively  have  the 
poetic  attitude.  They  fall  into  a  singsong  tone  or  chant 
in  their  games.  They  make  up  rimes,  often  of  mean- 
ingless syllables,  enchanted  by  the  repetition  of  a 
sound.  Not  all  children  are — like  the  poet — of  imagi- 
nation all  compact,  but  most  children  have  some 
imagination  to  begin  with,  and  are  capable  of  growth 
in  this  direction.  The  land  of  make-believe  is  known 
to  all  of  theln.  These  natural  aptitudes  determine  the 
method  of  teaching  poetry  to  girls  and  boys  of  the 
seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth  years,  and  the  selection  of 
the  poems  to  be  read  and  studied. 

Every  child  loves  stories,  and  few  outgrow  that 
love;  narrative  poetry  therefore  should  predominate 
in  the  junior  high  school.     Much  of  the  poetry  o£ 


182  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

American  writers  will  be  familiar  to  the  pupils  of  junior 
high-school  age,  but  certain  poems  are  peculiarly  ap- 
propriate to  this  stage  of  development — ^Whitman's 
"0  Captain!  My  Captain!",  for  example,  and  the 
patriotic  poems  of  Lowell  and  Longfellow,  Miller's 
"Columbus,''  and  Holmes's  "The  Chambered  Nautilus." 
The  love  of  adventure  is  strong  in  boys  of  twelve  and 
thirteen.  They  will  enjoy  Macaulay's  Lays  of  Ancient 
Rome,  with  their  tales  of  heroic  deeds ;  the  old  ballads 
of  Robin  Hood,  "Sir  Patrick  Spens,"  and  "The  Hunt- 
ing of  the  Cheviot" ;  Scott's  Marmion  and  The  I^ady  of 
the  Lake ;  Arnold's  "Sohrab  and  Rustum" ;  Tennyson's 
"Charge  of  the  Light  Brigade"  and  "The  Revenge"; 
Browning's  "An  Incident  of  the  French  Camp"; 
Noy^s's  "The  Highwayman";  and  Kipling's  "Gunga 
Din."  The  storehouse  from  which  to  choose  is  a 
rich  one. 

Short  descriptive  poems  are  not  beyond  the  ap- 
preciative capacity  of  junior  high-school  pupils  and  are 
valuable  for  developing  the  imagination.  Many  pupils 
do  not  visualize  readily ;  some  get  no  mental  image  at 
all  from  a  poetic  line.  Such  pupils  need  help  by 
question  and  suggestion  and  time.  They  must  not  be 
hurried.  Several  of  the  stanzas  in  Tennyson's  "The 
Lady  of  Shalott"  give  little  pictures  so  sharply  out- 
lined that  it  would  be  a  very  dull  mind  indeed  that 
could  not  visualize  them.  But  one  line  in  the  follow- 
ing stanza  needs  time  for  the  picture  to  form: 

"On  either  side  the  river  lie 
Long  fields  of  barley  and  of  rj^e 
That  clothe  the  wold  and  meet  the  sky; 
And  thro'  the  field  the  road  runs  by 
To  many-towered  Camelot." 


SOME    SPECIAL   PROBLEMS  183 

All  is  clear  until  we  come  to  "many-towered 
Camelot,"  There  the  teacher  must  pause  and  draw 
out  or  build  up  a  picture  of  the  ancient  city  climbing 
the  hill,  with  its  many  towers. 

"And  up  and  down  the  people  go, 
Gazing  where  the  lilies  blow 
Round  an  island  there  below, 
The  Island  of  Shalott." 

By  questions,  set  them  to  thinking  who  and  what 
these  people  are  and  how  they  look.  Then  read  Tenny- 
son's account  of  them  in  stanzas  6,  7,  and  8.  After  the 
discussion  read  the  stanza  through  again  so  that  the 
final  impression  will  be  unified.  Lanier's  "The  Song  of 
the  Chattahoochee"  appeals  to  the  eye  and  the  ear 
both.  In  Wordsworth's  "Daffodils,"  "Fluttering  and 
dancing  in  the  breeze,"  gives  a  picture  full  of  color  and 
motion.  It  makes  a  charming  contrast  to  the  sea 
picture  in  Masefield's  "Cardigan  Bay" — the  gold  of  the 
daffodils  and  the  green  of  the  sea.  There  is  motion  in 
both  poems — "Clean,  green,  windy  billows  notching 
out  the  sky."  .Masefield's  "West  Wind"  should  be  in- 
cluded in  this  list,  and  the  many  vivid  pictures  in 
Coleridge's  "The  Ancient  Mariner." 

The  study  of  a  poem  should  always  be  begun  in  class 
and  often  finished  there.  Since  appreciation  of  the 
masterpiece  is  emotional,  not  intellectual,  the  mood  of 
the  class  must  be  in  key  with  the  emotional  tone  of 
the  poem.  Introductory  or  explanatory  material  may 
be  assigned  for  home  study,  or,  preferably,  given  by 
the  teacher.  The  setting  made  clear,  and  all  obstacles 
in  the  form  of  unknown  words  or  strange  expressions 
removed,  the  teacher  should  read  the  poem  to  the  class. 


184  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

Much  of  the  beauty  of  the  poem  is  lost  if  the  ear  does 
not  get  the  rhythm,  the  tone  values,  and  the  harmonies 
of  sound.  Another  reason  for  this  plan  is  that  the 
poetic  form,  with  its  contractions,  its  inversions,  and 
its  imagery  often  baffles  the  boy  or  girl  trying  to  get 
the  thought,  and  the  result  is  discouragement  and  a 
distaste  for  poetry.  The  younger  the  class,  the  more 
necessary  it  is  that  they  should  hear  the  poem  read. 
According  to  Professor  Corson,  Mr.  Fairchild,  Pro- 
fessor Alphonso  Smith,  and  other  successful  teachers, 
nothing  is  of  more  value  in  the  study  of  poetry  in  the 
high  school  than  good  reading.  The  ability  to  read 
poetry  agreeably  and  sympathetically  should  be  a  part 
of  the  equipment  of  every  teacher  of  English.  Let  the 
pupils  read  when  they  can  read  well  enough  so  that  the 
class  enjoys  hearing  them,  but  never  allow  an  ex- 
quisite line  to  be  marred  by  a  blundering  and  in- 
sensitive reader.  After  the  reading  come  questions 
and  discussion  with  the  aim  of  finding  out  if  the  poem 
has  been  understood,  and  if  the  mental  images  are 
correct.  The  study  will  involve  more  than  one  re- 
reading of  a  difficult  or  beautiful  passages,  for  the  final 
impression  should  be  of  the  poem  itself  and  not  of 
some  contributory  material.  A  poem  should  never  be 
regarded  as  affording  material  for  other  kinds  of  study. 
The  simpler  poems  like  the  old  ballads  need  very  little 
explanation,  provided  the  background  has  been  pre- 
pared. "The  Ancient  Mariner"  needs  more  interpreta- 
tion. The  effect  of  the  poem  can  easily  be  destroyed, 
however,  by  too  much  insistence  on  the  "ethical  les- 
son." Coleridge  has  made  it  very  plain  in  two  simple 
stanzas.    Before  reading  Tennyson's  "The  Revenge," 


SOME    SPECIAL   PROBLEMS  185 

the  teacher  should  read  to  the  class  extracts  from  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh's  account  of  the  incident.  This  gives 
an  opportunity  to  explain  some  of  the  terms  which 
might  make  difficulty — pinnace,  galleon,  Inquisition, 
etc.,  so  that  the  poem  can  be  read  without  interrup- 
tion. If  the  story  is  clear  to  the  class,  little  need  be 
said  of  the  fine  idealism  of  the  poem — the  ''lesson"  is 
obvious,  and  it  is  a  strange  thing  if  the  pupils  do  not 
thrill  at  the  mere  reading  of  it. 

A  very  good  place  for  Arnold's  "Sohrab  and  Rus- 
tum"  is  in  the  ninth  year,  after  the  reading  of  the 
Odyssey.  Pupils  are  familiar  with  the  characteristics 
of  the  epic,  and  will  turn  easily  from  tales  of  Greek 
heroes  to  those  of  Persian.  The  story  of  Rustum's 
marriage  to  the  Tartar  princess  and  the  circumstances 
of  Sohrab's  birth  should  be  explained  to  the  class. 
The  story  can  be  told  in  such  a  way  as  to  bring  out 
the  Eastern  setting.  Familiarize  the  class  with  the 
names  of  the  principal  characters.  Then  begin  to 
read  the  poem  to  them.  Pause  after  the  second  stanza 
to  see  that  the  pictures  of  the  Tartar  camp  with  the 
"black  tents  clustering  like  bee-hives,"  and  Peran- 
Wisa's  tent — "A  dome  of  laths,  and  o'er  it  felts  were 
spread,"  all  so  diifferent  from  anything  within  the 
range  of  their  experience,  are  clear  and  correct.  The 
poetic  atmosphere  suggested  by  the  opening  lines  must 
be  felt  by  the  class — the  gray  of  early  morning — the 
broad  river — the  fog  rising  from  it — the  stillness  of  it 
all— for  that  same  note  is  struck,  only  more  deeply, 
at  the  close — cold,  darkness,  fog,  and  the  majestic 
river  flowing  toward  the  sea. 


186  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

The  story  opens  simply.  Sohrab's  request  is 
granted,  and  the  hosts  are  drawn  up  on  opposite  sides 
to  hear  the  herald's  message.  The  description  of  the 
Tartar  tribes  need  not  be  dwelt  upon  at  length — if  at 
all.  The  sole  purpose  of  the  passage  is  to  give  "local 
color,"  and  the  class  will  get  it  from  hearing  the  lines. 
The-  challenge  is  given,  and  Rustum  is  implored  to 
answer  it.  His  grievance  against  the  King,  his  final 
decision  to  meet  the  new  champion,  but  in  disguise, 
and  his  reasons  for  refusing  to  fight  under  his  own 
name  must  be  understood,  for  any  lack  of  clearness 
at  this  point  will  be  fatal.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to 
say  that  there  should  be  no  interruptions  to  the  read- 
ing after  the  point  where  Sohrab  and  Rustum  meet. 
The  story  grows  more  intense  with  every  line,  and  the 
artistic  effect  of  the  combat  with  its  tragic  climax 
would  be  ruined  by  explanatory  comments. 

Acquainted  through  the  Odyssey  with  Homer's  use 
of  the  simile,  classes  will  be  interested  in  discovering 
the  homeric  similes  in  this  poem.  Some  pupils  will 
be  struck  by  the  idea  of  fate  expressed  by  Sohrab.  All 
will  be  moved  by  his  courage  and  generosity,  and  by 
his  love  for  his  father.  The  story  lends  itself  well  to 
dramatization — Sohrab's  plea  to  Peran-Wisa,  the  chal- 
lenge to  the  Persians,  the  scene  in  Rustum's  tent,  the 
dialogue  between  Sohrab  and  Rustum  before  the  fight 
— all  sharply  dramatic.  The  little  play  might  open 
and  close  with  the  descriptive  passages  of  the  plain 
and  the  Oxus  river.  By  this  means  much  memorizing 
would  be  done,  for  the  lines  should  be  used  as  they 
were  written  whenever  possible.  There  is  opportunity 
for  imitative  writing,  too,  where  it  is  necessary  to  make 


SOME    SPECIAL  PROBLEMS  187 

connecting  links.  This  poem,  so  sure  in  its  appeal, 
should  always  find  a  place  in  the  course. 

Outlining,  paraphrasing,  and  reproduction  of  poems 
have  done  much  to  destroy  appreciation  of  poetry.  If 
an  outline  seems  advisable  in  any  particular  class,  let 
it  be  oral  and  informal.  As  for  paraphrasing,  it  not 
only  has  no  value  in  this  connection,  but  does  positive 
harm.  Professor  Corson  says  that  poetry  should  be 
apprehended  as  directly  as  possible  through  its  own 
language.  Nothing  should  be  done  to  dull  the  im- 
pression of  a  poetic  passage  as  it  was  written — for  its 
beauty  consists  in  choice  of  words  and  arrangement  as 
well  as  in  thought. 

Memorizing  should  be  done  constantly,  but  this 
must  not  be  made  a  hated  task,  nor  need  it  be.  Begin 
this  work  in  class.  Read  a  favorite  passage  once  or 
twice,  making  sure  that  the  thought  and  images  are 
clear  ("a  pinnace,  like  a  fluttered  bird" — ^What  does 
the  pupil  see?).  Then  call  on  someone  to  repeat  the 
passage.  That  pupil  may  need  assistance,  but  the 
next  one  will  probably  be  able  to  give  it  perfectly, 
and  the  class  will  be  charmed  to  see  how  easily  the 
thing  may  be  done.  Give  them  all  the  aids  afforded 
by  the  passage,  observing  the  rime  arrangement,  steps 
in  the  development  of  the  thought  or  story,  the  out- 
line of  a  picture,  etc.  If  the  habit  of  memorizing 
good  poetry  is  formed  in  the  junior  high  school,  a 
wonderful  foundation  has  been  laid  for  further  reading. 

Should  there  be  any  study  of  poetic  form  in  the 
junior  high  school?  Very  little,  and  that  dependent 
on  the  course.  If  in  the  ninth  year  there  is  much 
reading  of  ballads,  if  the  course  includes  some  such 


188  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

collection  as  Gayley  and  Flaherty's  Poetry  of  the 
People,  for  instance,  a  study  of  the  ballad  form  would 
have  interest  if  followed  up  by  imitative  work.  Many 
pupils  take  delight  in  attempting  original  ballads,  and 
there  is  real  value  in  such  attempts,  and  occasionally 
real  merit  in  their  production.  The  ultimate  value,  of 
course,  is  in  the  deepening  of  interest  in  the  ballads 
themselves. 

As  to  diction,  that  should  be  emphasized  from  the 
beginning,  but  delicately  and  tactfully  at  first,  never 
in  a  formal  way.  The  very  name  "diction"  has  some- 
thing forbidding  about  it.  Children  are  never  too 
young  to  love  a  word  for  its  own  sake — its  sound,  or 
its  suggestion,  or  for  some  mysterious  charm  it  has 
for  them.  And  poetic  diction,  being  simple  and  con- 
crete, is  not  so  far  removed  from  the  diction  of  their 
everyday  life  as  one  might  think  at  first.  It  pays  to 
dwell  on  magical  words  and  felicitous  phrases  till  their 
beauty  and  force  sink  in.  Substitute  a  commonplace 
expression  for  some  exquisitely  right  word  in  a  line  of 
poetry,  and  see  if  the  pupils  do  not  instantly  feel  the 
loss.  It  is  possible  to  do  much  more  with  this  element 
of  poetry  in  the  senior  high  school.  There  the  study 
of  poetic  diction  does  much  to  develop  appreciation. 

If  it  is  objected  that  with  this  method  of  teaching 
poetry  the  teacher,  not  the  pupil,  does  the  work,  the 
answer  is  that  that  fact  is  unimportant.  The  aim  is 
not  to  make  the  pupils  work.  Poetry  is  not  the  ma- 
terial for  drill — and  moreover,  there  is  ample  oppor- 
tunity for  work  in  the  study  of  poetry  later  on.  The 
aim  is  to  make  pupils  like  poetry  so  well  that  it  shall 
be,  in  later  years,  a  resource  in  the  business  of  life 


SOME    SPECIAL   PROBLEMS  180 

as  well  as  in  its  leisure.  And  anything  that  is  in- 
spirational is  educational  in  the  broadest  sense.  Arlo 
Bates  says  that  the  most  important  office  of  literature 
in  the  school  as  in  life  is  to  minister  to  delight  and 
to  enthusiasm.  That  this  is  not  the  universal  result  of 
our  efforts  is  a  melancholy  fact.  The  principal  of  a 
certain  high  school  had  occasion  to  reprove  two  small 
boys  in  the  entering  class  for  plastering  a  portrait  of 
Milton  with  tiny  wads  of  paper,  shot  with  skill  and 
accuracy  at  the  tempting  target.  The  teacher  in 
charge  of  the  study  hall  had  reported  them  as  having 
"desecrated  Milton's  portrait." 

"What  made  you  choose  Milton's  portrait?"  said  the 
principal,  fixing  the  culprits  with  a  stern  eye,  "Have 
you  anything  against  him?" 

"Oh,  no,  sir,"  they  cried,  glad  to  be  clear  of  that  par- 
ticular crime,  "We  haven't  had  him  yet!" 

One  laughs,  but  what  an  arraignment! 

//.   In  the  Senior  High  School 

Perhaps  the  most  important  aspect  of  the  study  of 
poetry  in  the  first  year  of  the  senior  high  school  is  the 
selection.  This  is  a  critical  time  in  the  educational 
life  of  many  a  pupil — especially  of  many  a  boy.  What 
shall  we  give  him  that  will  hold  his  uncertain  interest? 
His  intolerance  of  anything  which  does  not  meet  his 
approval  is  so  whole-souled  that  it  is  useless  to  try 
to  force  him  in  any  direction.  Love  stories  he  will  not 
have.  He  no  longer  cares  so  warmly  for  mere  adven- 
ture. But  he  is  interested  in  large  questions  of  right 
and  wrong,  in  patriotism,  and  in  standards  of  conduct. 
He  will  like  Byron's  "Prisoner  of  Chillon,"  and  he  will 


19b  ENGLISH  PROBLEMS 

not  be  ashamed  of  the  wave  of  sympathy  that  sweeps 
his  soul.  Kipling's  ''If  will  interest  him,  and  Vachel 
Lindsay's  ''Abraham  Lincoln  Walks  at  Midnight,"  R. 
W.  Gilder's  fine  sonnet,  "On  the  Life  Mask  of  Abra- 
ham Lincoln,"  several  of  Tennyson's  Idylls  oj  the 
King — "The  Passing  of  Arthur"  and  "Gareth  and 
Lynette,"  for  example.  In  the  latter  the  love  theme 
can  be  touched  very  lightly,  and  the  interest  centered 
on  the  qualities  of  courage,  generosity,  and  knightly 
courtesy — Gareth's  self-control  and  good  manners  in 
the  face  of  Lynette's  very  trying  conduct.  The  sea 
poetry  of  Masefield  and  Kipling,  and  Service's  Rhymes 
of  a  Red  Cross  Man  are  almost  sure  to  win  enjoyment. 
A  new  field  opens  up  for  study  in  the  eleventh  and 
twelfth  years — the  richest  of  all,  but  the  most  diffi- 
cult to  deal  with.  How  shall  lyric  poetry  be  taught? 
What  is  the  approach?  The  method?  How  share 
with  our  pupils  this  beautiful  definition  of  poetry? 

The  magic  light  that  springs 

From  the  deep  soul  of  things 

"Wnien,  called  by  their  true  name, 

Their  essence  is  set  free; 

The  word,  illuminate, 

Showing  the  soul's  estate, 

Baring  the  hearts  of  men :   Poetry ! 

— Annie  L.  Laney 

Shall  there  be  a  formal  preparation  for  the  lyric?  A 
lining  up  of  the  poems  already  familiar  to  the  class 
under  the  heads,  "objective  poetry"  and  "subjective 
poetry,"  with  the  distinguishing  characteristics  of  each 
class?  A  division  of  lyric  poetry  into  classes — the 
song,  the  ode,  the  elegy,  the  sonnet?  All  this  is  use- 
ful knowledge,  and  a  legitimate  part  of  the  intellectual 


SOME    SPECIAL   PROBLEMS  191 

possession  of  a  high-school  graduate.  He  would  be  bold 
indeed  who  prescribes  arbitrarily  the  one  method  sure 
to  succeed.  One  can  suggest,  however,  supported  by 
the  tests  of  experience.  Keeping  in  view  the  aim  of 
true  appreciation,  which  involves  comprehension  and 
enjoyment,  one  feels  that  the  first  enthusiasm  of  the 
class  in  taking  up  something  new  should  be  spent  on 
the  thing  itself,  and  not  on  study  about  the  thing. 
Begin  with  the  poetry,  then.  Begin  with  Burns.  One 
can  hardly  fail  there.  Even  the  most  prosaic  soul, 
who  has  never  been  "attended  by  the  vision  splendid'' 
will  read  Burns.  'To  a  Mouse"  and  'To  a  Mountain 
Daisy"  lead  easily  to  the  discussion  of  Burns's  fond- 
ness for  animals,  flowers,  and  all  out-of-door  life,  and 
to  his  sympathy  with  man.  The  introduction  to  his 
songs  should  be  musical.  Any  musical  talent  in  the 
class  should  be  utilized,  and  good  victrola  records  when 
available.  Through  further  reading  and  discussion  of 
Burns's  poetry  lead  the  class  to  discover  the  personal 
element  in  the  lyric.  Formulate  a  definition:  A  lyric 
is  a  poem  that  expresses  personal  feeling,  sentiment, 
or  emotion.  They  will  see  that  this  expression  must 
be  sincere  to  be  effective,  and  that  the  beauty  of  a 
lyric  depends  on  the  nobility  of  the  theme,  and  the 
intensity  and  spontaneity  of  expression. 

'The  Solitary  Reaper,"  'To  a  Cuckoo,"  "The  Ode 
to  Duty,"  and  certain  of  the  sonnets  such  as  "London 
in  1802,"  and  "The  World  Is  Too  Much  with  Us"  make 
a  good  introduction  to  Wordsworth.  Byron's  poetry 
always  appeals  to  pupils  of  this  age,  and  though  they 
may  tire  later  of  his  egotism  and  passionate  defiances, 
a  liking  for  his  poetry  at  this  stage  of  their  develop- 


192  RNGLISH    PROBLEMS 

ment  helps  to  strengthen  their  liking  for  poetry  in 
general.  'The  Ocean"  and  ''Night  on  Lake  Leman" 
are  favorites. 

Shelley  and  Keats  are  not  for  all  minds,  perhaps, 
and  the  teacher  should  feel  his  way  carefully.  Begin 
with  a  reading  of  Shelley's  "The  Cloud."  The  music 
of  the  lines  and  the  comparative  simplicity  of  the 
ideas  will  nearly  always  carry  it  into  the  pupils'  af- 
fections. "The  Ode  to  the  West  Wind"  is  within  their 
grasp,  too,  and  they  will  read  Shelley's  prayer  with 
understanding,  and  sympathy.  With  Keats  the  prep- 
aration has  to  be  made  skillfully.  Begin  with  the  ex- 
quisite "Ode  on  a  Grecian  Urn."  Linger  over  the  title. 
The  average  boy,  who  has  probably  never  observed  an 
urn  of  any  kind,  reads  it  with  nothing  in  his  mind. 
Pictures  would  be  helpful  at  this  moment.  Some  de- 
scription of  a  Grecian  urn  is  necessary  with  its  proces- 
sion of  figures  and  symbolical  scenes.  When  the  idea 
of  the  subject  is  clear,  read  the  poem  through  to  the 
class.  They  will  get  something  from  that  first  read- 
ing, but,  of  course,  there  will  be  questions,  and  so  the 
study  will  begin.  The  diction  in  this  poem  is  so  simple 
that  it  presents  no  difiiculties,  but  the  pupils  will  need 
help  with  the  ideas.  Perhaps  to  some  the  line,  "Heard 
melodies  are  sweet,  but  those  unheard  are  sweeter," 
will  never  be  anything  but  a  mystery.  To  others  it 
will  be  a  revelation.  Keats  should  never  be  forced 
upon  any  class  of  high-school  age,  but  it  is  worth  while 
to  give  pupils  the  opportunity  of  becoming  acquainted 
with  his  poetry.  The  poem  appended,  written  by 
a  high-school  boy  in  imitation  of  the  "Ode  on  a 
Grecian  Urn,"  shows  what  Keats  can  mean  to  some. 


SOME    SPECIAL   PROBLEMS  193 

ODE    TO   AX    INDIAN   AEROW-HEAD 

Thou  cold  and  silent  messenger  of  death, 

Thou  courier,  swift  as  Mercury  in  flight, 

Fearless  destroyer,  snuffing  mortal  breath 

•As  lightly  as  a  candle  in  the  night; 

On  what  a  fearful  errand  wert  thou  bent? 

What  message  called  thee  forth  to  cleave  the  air, 

More  quickly  than  ihe  wind  to  reach  thy  goal? 

Against  the  kingly  roebuck  wert  thou  sent? 

Perchance  to  end  the  flight  of  timid  hare, 

Or  rob  some  human  mansion  of  its  soul? 

Brave  oaks,  ye  sturdy  sentries  of  the  wood 

That  guard  the  spot,  ye  know  the  awesome  tale 

And  willingly  would  tell  me  if  ye  could, 

The  hidden  thoughts  that  make  j^our  branches  quail. 

'Twas  down  this  patli  there  came  a  wary  tread  j 

Behind  yon  bank  the  stealthy  watch  was  made, 

While  every  woodland  songster  ceased  to  sing. — 

Unwitting  enemy,  beware  yon  shade! — 

Alas,  too  late,  and  lifeless  sinks  his  head, 

His  heart  has  felt  the  stone-tipped  arrow's  sting. 

Or  was  it  in  some  savage  Waterloo, 

AVhere  fought  the  painted  braves  of  many  tribes, 

You  rushed  in  vain  against  the  men  who  knew 

To  call  the  lightning  down,  by  magic  bribes? 

You  looked  from  out  the  quiver  and  beheld 

A  warlike  council  circled  round  the  fire; 
And  darkly  scowling  wrath  was  on  each  face.  ' 

You  heard  the  beating  tom-toms  Avhich  impelled 

The  mystic  war  dance,  roused  the  vengeful  ire 
Of  warriors,  to  protect  their  falling  race. 
The  morning  breaks ;  what  shadowy  forms  are  these 
That  silently  the  leafy  pathway  tread, 
And  waiting,  crouch  behind  the  sheltering  trees  ? 
Ah,  'twas  the  sun  upon  an  arrow-head. — 
Approaching  comes  the  tramp  of  many  feet; 
A  curdling  war-whoop  leaps  from  hill  to  shore; 
Then  swift  and  true  the  flint-tip  takes  its  flight. 
But  swifter  yet,  there  comes  the  leaden  sleet. 
The  thunder  rolls,  the  lightning  flashes  briglit; — 
The  hand  that  sent  thee  draws  the  string  no  more. 


194  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

Ah,  roughly  chipped  arrow-head  of  stone, 

Thou  piece  of  nature^s  very  element, 

Imbedded  in  a  mossy  bank  alone 

And  harmless,  with  thy  deadly  impulse  spent, 

Thy  task  as  mortal  messenger  is  done; 

No  more  thou  givest  vent  to  human  wrath 

Or  fliest  to  arrest  some  beating  heart. 

The  magic  streak  of  fire  thy  place  has  won; 

The  tribes  no  longer  take  the  blood-stained  path; 

So  rest  in  peaceful  quiet  where  thou  art. 

The  war  has  produced  some  fine  lyrics,  which  should 
not  be  neglected.  Rupert  Brooke's  "Sonnets  of  1914," 
McCrae's  "In  Flanders  Fields,"  W.  M.  Letts's  "The 
Spires  of  Oxford"  are  only  a  few  of  the  best  known 
poems  to  be  found  in  every  collection  of  war  verse. 
With  some  classes  these  lyrics  of  today  make  the  most 
happy  beginning  for  the  study  of  lyric  poetry. 

Milton's  descriptive  lyrics,  "L' Allegro"  and  "II  Pen- 
seroso,"  require  more  study  than  most  short  poems  be- 
cause of  their  wealth  of  mythological  and  literary  allu- 
sions, but  this  study  should  never  be  allowed  to  assume 
the  importance  of  the  end  in  view,  and  one  should  keep 
in  mind  these  sentences  from  the  report  of  the  commit- 
tee on  the  Reorganization  of  English  in  Secondary 
Schools,  page  73 :  "Poetry,  especially  the  lyric,  should 
be  less  exhaustively  studied  than  other  types  (of  litera- 
ture). Close  analytical  treatment  and  a  painstaking 
mastery  of  notes  are  ruinous  to  its  spirit  and  sensuous 
appeal."  The  first  interest  of  the  class  will  center  in 
the  series  of  pictures  in  the  two  poems.  The  proces- 
sion of  figures  should  be  described — Spprt,  wrinkled 
Care,  Laughter  holding  both  his  sides,  etc.  Some 
boy  who  is  clever  with  his  pencil  will  illustrate  this 
passage  and  the  companion  passage  in  "II  Penseroso"; 


SOME    SPECIAL   PROBLEMS  195 

or  a  series  of  tableaux  may  be  given  with  reading  of 
the  lines.  Pictures  and  lantern  slides  are  valuable  for 
giving  pupils  a  background  for  the  study  of  the  nature 
poetry  of  England.  The  concrete  thing  is  but  an  aid — 
a  starting-point  for  fuller  visualization.    The  lines — 

"Russet  lawns  and  fallows  gray" 
and 

"Towers  and  battlements  it  sees 
Bosomed  high  in  tufted  trees" 

will  be  meaningless  without  some  knowledge  of  the 
characteristic  aspects  of  an  English  landscape. 

In  discussing  the  thought  in  the  two  poems,  it  should 
be  made  clear  that  they  are  practically  two  divisions  of 
a  single  poem,  depicting  the  enjoyments  of  a  man  in 
contrasting  moods.  Pupils  do  not  always  see  this  fact, 
for  one  reason  because  they  do  not,  at  first,  realize  that 
the  Melancholy  banished  from  "L' Allegro"  is  not  at  all 
the  "Pensive  Nun"  welcomed  in  ''II  Penseroso."  At 
this  point  the  story  of  Milton's  life  at  Horton  should  be 
brought  in.  Pupils  will  see  that  the  poems  are  an  ex- 
pression of  the  young  Milton's  tastes,  ideals,  and  ambi- 
tions. 

Beauty  and  suggestiveness  of  diction  are  a  striking 
feature  of  Milton's  poetry.  Macaulay  says  that  each 
epithet  is  the  text  for  a  paragraph,  so  rich  is  it  in  associ- 
ations. Imagination  travels  far,  stirred  by  such  ex- 
pressions as  ''iron  tears,"  ''storied  windows,"  "richly 
dight"  "civil-suited  morn";  and  lines  and  passages 
should  be  read  and  lingered  over  until  they  have  sunk 
into  the  consciousness  of  the  pupils. 

Another  element  of  beauty  is  the  harmony  between 
thought  and  form  in  these  poems.    The  opening  lines 


196  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

in  "L'Allegro"  illustrate  this  quality.  The  tone  of  the 
passage  is  one  of  gloom  and  stern  vigor.  The  banished 
mood  is  "loathed,"  and  is  consigned  to  a  fearful  place. 
How  do  meter  and  diction  contribute  to  this  impres- 
sion? The  meter  is  irregular,  with  the  occasional  sub- 
stitution of  a  trochee  for  the  initial  iambus  of  a  line, 
or  the  omission  of  the  opening  unaccented  syllable. 
There  is  an  alternation  of  short  and  long  lines.  The 
words  are  long — contrast  with  the  monosyllables  in 
the  body  of  the  poem — and  there  is  a  preponderance 
of  heavy  vowel  and  consonant  sounds — long  o^s,  and 
fe's  and  c^'s.  The  whole  effect  of  the  sounds  is  slow  and 
heavy.  This  contrast  with  the  light  and  tripping  effect 
of  the  succeeding  lines  is  most  artistic.  It  is  hardly 
necessary  to  repeat  that  nothing  will  make  this  mastery 
of  verse  clear  but  hearing  the  poems  read  musically 
and  sympathetically.  Mr.  Albert  Walker  says  in  his 
excellent  school  edition  of  the  minor  poems :  *'No  bet- 
ter exercise  for  training  the  ear  to  a  perception  of  the 
j&ner  harmonies  of  verse  can  be  found  than  to  read  the 
lines  of  'L' Allegro'  and  'II  Penseroso'  metrically,  with 
the  attention  directed  toward  detecting  the  subtle 
adaptation  of  the  movement  to  the  varying  shades  of 
feeling  expressed  by  the  poet."  ^^^^  ^^^^^ 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Bates,  Arlo.  Talks  on  the  Teaching  of  Literature  (Chap.  VIII). 
Bolenius,  Emma.     The  Teaching  of  Literature  in  the  Grammar 

Grades  and  High  School. 
Eastman,  Max.     The  Enjoyment  of  Poetry, 
Fairchild,  A.  H.  R.    The  Teaching  of  Poetry  in  the  High  School. 
Newbolt,  Henry.    A  New  Study  of  English  Poetry. 
The  English  Journal: 

Davis,  Ada  L.    "Preparing  Seniors  for  Palgrave,"  June,  1915. 


SOME   SPECIAL  PROBLEMS  197 

The  English  Leaflet: 

Abrams,   Jeanette  F.     "Published  Airs  for   Songs  in   The 
Golden  Treasury"  February,  1919. 


THE  DRAMA 

A  course  in  the  drama  for  high-school  pupils  should 
be  primarily  a  reading  course,  with  the  aim  of  intro- 
ducing the  great  world  dramatists,  and  it  should  be 
given  in  the  last  year.  It  is  rarely  necessary  to  develop 
an  interest  in  plays  and  acting.  It  is  already  there 
and  only  needs  guidance.  An  acquaintance  with  good 
plays  will  do  much  to  raise  the  standard  of  taste  in 
the  class,  so  that  in  their  selection  of  school  plays  they 
will  not  be  content  with  the  usual  commonplace  and 
sentimental  trash.  It  is  not  too  much  to  hope  that 
the  schools  may  help  in  time  to  bring  about  a  demand 
on  the  part  of  the  American  public  for  better  plays  in 
our  theaters. 

If  it  is  not  possible  to  offer  an  entire  course  in  the 
drama,  the  work  may  be  given  as  a  part  of  the  regular 
English  course.  Organize  the  class  into  a  drama  club, 
and  give  one  recitation  period  a  week,  or  one  in  two 
weeks,  to  the  club  meeting.  Let  the  club  resolve  itself 
into  groups  of  three  or  four,  each  group  to  be  respon- 
sible for  a  program.  Give  a  list  of  plays  from  which 
the  selection  may  be  made  for  class  presentation,  and 
then  give  the  class  a  free  hand.  All  details  involved 
in  arranging  dates  and  programs  for  the  various  groups 
can  be  managed  by  the  club  president  or  chairman  so 
that  the  teacher's  time  is  kept  free  for  conferences. 

The  most  enjoyable  as  well  as  the  most  desirable 
kind  of  program  is  the  actual  production  of  the  plays, 


198  ENGLISH    PROBLEMS 

but  that  is  obviously  impossible  because  of  the  time 
limitation,  and  the  lack  of  training  among  the  pupils. 
It  is  e^icouraging  to  realize,  however,  how  much  may- 
be done  in  spite  of  these  handicaps.  If  conditions  do 
not  permit  giving  the  whole  play,  one  or  two  scenes  can 
be  presented,  the  story  having  been  summarized  pre- 
viously for  the  class  by  one  of  the  group  presenting 
the  program.  In  selecting  the  scenes  to  be  given,  the 
pupils  are  getting  incidentally  some  knowledge  of  dra- 
matic construction,  for  they  should  always  be  asked  to 
justify  their  choice.  In  some  plays  a  scene  will  be 
chosen  for  its  exposition  of  the  plot,  in  others  for  its 
presentation  of  character,  or  because  it  gives  atmos- 
phere, or  sets  forth  the  ideas  of  the  author. 

The  absence  of  scenery  and  appropriate  costumes  is 
no  more  a  drawback  than  it  was  in  Shakespearean 
times.  The  inability  of  pupils  to  use  their  voices  and 
to  enunciate  with  anything  like  distinctness,  however, 
is  a  serious  obstacle  to  the  success  of  the  work.  The 
wittiest  lines  are  easily  killed  by  a  poor  delivery,  and 
the  whole  point  of  a  scene  is  lost  if  the  dialogue  does 
not  "get  across."  In  schools  where  there  is  a  flourish- 
ing dramatic  club,  or  where  there  is  a  general  course  in 
public  speaking  this  diiSiculty  may  not  arise,  but  in 
too  many  schools  the  English  class  affords  the  only 
opportunity  for  training  pupils  to  speak  clearly  and 
correctly.  Obviously,  the  lines  of  the  play  must  be 
read  so  that  they  can  be  understood,  and  so  that  every 
shade  of  meaning  is  caught;  and  certain  elementary 
principles  of  acting  and  stage  directions  must  be  made 
familiar  to  the  class  if  they  are  going  to  do  anything 
effective,     The  proportion  of  time  and  effort  to  be 


SOME    SPECIAL  PROBLEMS  199 

given  to  this  side  of  the  work  is  an  individual  problem 
with  every  teacher,  and  need  not  be  discussed  here.  As 
far  as  possible,  though,  let  the  pupils  themselves  do 
the  coaching.  In  nearly  every  class  there  will  be  sev- 
eral who  have  had  enough  experience  to  enable  them 
to  help  others ;  moreover,  this  is  the  kind  of  thing  that 
makes  the  socialization  of  the  English  class  an  actu- 
ality. 

However,  the  course  under  discussion  is  not  a  course 
in  dramatics,  but  a  course  in  the  reading  of  plays,  and 
there  are  many  ways  of  conducting  the  work.  Certain 
plays  are  most  effectively  presented  by  one  pupil,  who 
gives  the  theme,  summarizes  the  plot,  and  reads  bits  of 
the  dialogue  to  illustrate  and  point  his  explanations. 
"The  Pigeon,"  by  Galsworthy,  lends  itself  to  this  kind 
of  treatment.  Sometimes  the  best  approach  to  a  play 
is  through  the  author  and  his  ideas,  but  as  a  general 
rule  the  play  itself  is  the  thing  from  the  beginning. 

Several  of  Barrie's  plays  are  ideal  for  launching  the 
project.  The  plots  involve  nothing  of  the  unpleasant, 
are  never  commonplace,  and  are  not  over  the  heads  of 
young  people.  Whoever  has  felt  the  delicate  charm  of 
Barrie's  plays  will  be  less  tolerant  of  the  dull  and  the  ., 
vulgar  ever  after.  "The  Admirable  Crichton,"  "Qual- 
ity Street,"  and  "What  Every  Woman  Knows"  head 
the  list.  Of  his  recent  one-act  plays,  "The  Old  Lady 
Shows  Her  Medals"  is  perhaps  the  best  for  school  use. 
The  one-act  play  is  a  most  welcome  development  in 
the  drama,  and  its  advantages  for  this  purpose  are 
obvious.  Of  Dunsany's  one-act  plays,  "The  Gods  of 
the  Mountain"  and  "The  Lost  Hat"  should  be  on  the 
list.    A  suggestive  list  for  the  course  follows: 


200  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

Barrie,    Sir   James:    The  Admirable   Crichton;    Quality   Street; 

What   Every    Woman   Knows;    The   Little   Minister;   Dear 

Brutus;  A  Kiss  for  Cinderella;  The  One- Act  Plays. 
Benavente,    Jacinto:      The    Prince    Who    Knew   Everything    in 

Books. 
Bennet  and  Knobloch:    Milestones. 
Drinkwater,  John :    Abraham  Lincoln. 
Dunsany,  Lord:     All  of  the  plays  published  under  the  title  of 

Five  Plays;  A  Night  at  an  Inn. 
France,  Anatole:     The  Man  Who  Married  a  Dumb  Wife. 
Galsworthy,  John:    Justice;  Strife;  The  Silver  Box;  The  Pigeon. 
Gates,  Eleanor,  H. :     The  Poor  Little  Bich  Girl. 
Gregory,  Lady:     Spreading  the  News,  and  other  comedies;  The 

Gaol  Gate. 
Mackaye,  Percy:     A  Thousand  Years  Ago;  Sanctuary;  George 

Washington. 
Maeterlinck,  Maurice:     The  Bluebird;  The  Burgomaster  of  Stile- 

m>onde. 
Marks,  J.  P.    The  Piper;  The  Wolf  of  Gubbio. 
Rostand,     Edmund:       Cyrano     de     Bergerac;    VAiglon;     The 

Romancers. 
Shaw,    George   Bernard:      You   Never   Can    Tell^    Caesar    and 

Cleopatra. 
Synge,  J.  M. :     Biders  to  the  Sea. 

Tarkington,  Booth,  and  Wilson,  Harry  Leon:  The  Gibson  Up- 
right. 
Yeats,  W.  B. :     The  Land  of  Heart's  Desire.  , 

Zangwill,  Israel:    The  Melting  Pot. 

Before  the  Irish  plays  are  given,  some  explanation 
should  be  made  of  the  Celtic  Renaissance,  and  of  the 
work  of  the  Irish  dramatists  and  the  thing  they  were 
trying  to  do.  Some  of  the  groups  will  need  help  in 
selecting  a  play,  and  will  welcome  the  informal  con- 
ference with  the  teacher.  The  importance  of  these 
conferences  cannot  be  overestimated,  for  it  is  in  the 
conference  that  the  most  valuable  teaching  may  be 


SOME    SPECIAL   PROBLEMS  201 

done.  The  following  books  will  be  useful  to  teacher 
-and  pupils  for  general  suggestion :  How  to  See  a  Play, 
by  Richard  Burton ;  The  Play  of  Today,  by  Elizabeth 
Hunt;  The  Voice  and  Spiritual  Education,  by  Profes- 
sor Corson;  and  with  some  classes  Another  Book  on  the 
Theater,  by  George  Jean  Nathan.  The  last  named  con- 
tains parodies  and  burlesques  of  the  cheaper  forms  of 
modern  entertainments,  and  is  commended  to  the  dis- 
cretion of  the  teacher. 

What  results  may  be  expected  from  such  a  course? 
In  the  first  place,  pupils  will  read  more  widely  than  if 
certain  books  on  the  list  are  prescribed.  In  the  second 
place  they  get  a  wider  acquaintance  with  plays  through 
the  class  work  in  conjunction  with  their  own  reading. 
And  finally,  many  of  them  who  have  never  been  fond  of 
books  acquire  the  taste  for  reading  plays. 

Anne  McColm 


CHAPTER    SIX 

THE  TEACHING  OF  CERTAIN  CLASSICS 
The  Odyssey.    Shakespeare.    Burke. 

THE  ODYSSEY 

If  the  junior  high  school  is  to  study  intensively- 
some  one  piece  of  literature,  what  can  be  found  that  is 
best  suited  to  the  needs  aj^d  interests  of  the  boys  and 
girls  at  that  stage  of  their  development?  All  would 
agree,  I  think,  that  it  should  be  narrative  in  form 
rather  than  expository  or  wholly  descriptive.  It  should 
be  imaginative,  full  of  human  interest,  varied  in  its 
appeal.  The  emphasis  must  be  upon  deeds  rather  than 
thoughts ;  the  characters  should  be  simple  and  direct — 
no  subtleties  of  the  modern  problem  story;  the  style 
should  be  clear  and  beautiful.  Palmer's  translation 
of  Homer's  Odyssey  more  than  meets  all  these  require- 
ments. It  has  the  charm  of  narrative — the  thrill  of  the 
super-adventure ;  it  has  the  charm  of  novelty — to  many 
it  is  an  introduction  to  the  fascinating  world  of  hero 
and  myth;  it  has  the  charm  of  beauty — of  color  and 
music  so  wonderfully  carried  over  into  prose  by  Mr. 
Palmer — and,  in  addition  to  these,  a  knowledge  of  the 
story  and  the  life  that  it  reveals  is  an  important  acqui- 
sition as  a  matter  of  general  education. 

A  wonderful  feast  you  say  to  set  before  boys  and 
girls.  But  what  if  they  do  not  seem  to  enjoy  it?  Per- 
haps the  very  wealth  of  the  material  which  the  Odyssey 
offers  is  in  the  beginning  a  stumbling  block  to  its  full 

202 


THE    TEACHING    OF    CERTAIN    CLASSICS       203 

enjoyment  by  the  pupils.  Here,  more  than  in  any 
other  piece  of  literature,  is  the  start  important.  Do 
not  permit  your  students  to  be  overwhelmed  at  the 
outset  and  perhaps  prejudiced  against  the  story  by  the 
strangeness  of  names  and  subject  matter  and  form. 
Help  them  a  great  deal  at  the  beginning.  Go  with 
them  step  by  step  into  the  realm  and  spirit  of  the  epic 
romance.  It  is  a  long  step  back  from  the  practical 
world  of  today  in  its  superficial  aspects,  but  a  shorter 
step  than  we  realize  in  the  fanciful  realm  of  the  child's 
imagination.  Are  the  great  and  thrilling  adventures  of 
Odysseus  absurdities  to  the  skeptical  youth  of  today? 
Why,  then,  does  his  mind  so  willingly  accept  the  impos- 
sible achievements  of  two  immature  boy  scouts  of 
twelve  years,  who,  alone  and  unarmed,  round  up  and 
turn  over  to  the  authorities  a  band  of  notoriously 
dangerous  criminals — or,  winging  their  way  across  the 
ocean  in  an  airplane  of  their  own  manufacture,  dis- 
cover the  diabolical  plot  of  the  German  submarine,  a 
discovery  which  saves  the  whole  American  navy.  The 
deeds  of  the  great  Odysseus  are  not  unimaginable; 
nothing  is  impossible  to  the  spirit  of  youth.  All  that 
is  difficult  is  the  strange  atmosphere,  with  beauty  and 
inspiration  substituted  for  the  crude  art  and  manufac- 
tured thrills  of  the  serial  escapades. 

The  approach  to  the  actual  study  of  the  Odyssey  will 
differ,  does  differ,  among  teachers  who  have  been  emi- 
nently successful  in  awakening  in  their  pupils  a  real 
pleasure  in  the  book.  It  may  seem  advisable  to  some 
to  begin  the  actual  work  in  the  book  at  some  other 
chapter  than  the  first — the  ninth,  for  instance — com- 
ing back  later  to  the  first  chapter.   Others  feel  that  the 


204  ENGLISH  PROBLEMS 

work  gains  by  omitting  some  chapters  altogether.  The 
following  suggestions  are  therefore  meant  to  indicate 
just  one  possible  method  of  approach,  and  they  assume 
that  the  whole  book  is  to  be  read  in  the  order  in  which 
the  story  was  originally  told. 

At  the  outset,  recommend  that  the  students  who  find 
it  possible  to  do  so,  purchase  copies  of  some  good 
standard  mythology,  Bulfinch's  Age  of  Fable,  or  Gay- 
ley's  Classic  Myths.  Have  some  copies  of  these  on 
your  desk  or  conveniently  located  in  the  library  where 
they  may  be  easily  consulted  by  students  who  do  not 
own  copies.  Before  any  assignments  of  work  are  made, 
read  over  with  the  pupils  the  pages  in  the  introduction 
which  tell  of  the  Trojan  War,  so  that  the  relation  of 
the  Odyssey  to  the  Iliad  is  understood  at  the  beginning. 
Tell  them  about  the  Trojan  War,  and  see  if  you  are  not 
frequently  interrupted  by  those  in  the  class  who  would 
like  to  contribute  some  stories  from  it  that  they  know. 
There  are  always  those  who  know  the  familiar  story  of 
the  golden  apple,  and  this  will  lead  to  a  discussion  of 
the  participation  of  gods  in  the  affairs  of  men  and  to  a 
review  of  any  scattering  knowledge  they  may  have  of 
Greek  gods  and  goddesses.  Let  the  first  recita- 
tions be  given  over  to  the  telling  of  stories  about  the 
Trojan  War  and  its  heroes,  and  about  the  character- 
istic appearances  and  attributes  of  the  great  Olympian 
deities.  Pictures  will  do  much  to  make  this  work 
vivid,  and  good  prints  are  easily  obtainable.  The  keep- 
ing of  notebooks  into  which  the  children  may  put  pic- 
tures as  well  as  interesting  items  about  the  story  or 
related  myths  will  stimulate  interest.  At  this  time 
let  the  teacher  give  some  simple  account  of  the  Greek 


THE    TEACHING    OF    CERTAIN    CLASSICS       205 

myths  of  creation  and  point  out  by  means  of  the  map 
the  ancient  Greek's  conception  of  the  limits  of  the 
physical  world.  The  first  chapter  should  be  read  aloud 
in  class,  interpretation  by  the  teacher  clearing  up  every 
difficulty  as  it  comes.  Much  of  the  reading  at  first 
should  be  done  by  the  teacher.  This  will  give  the 
pronunciation  of  many  new  names  and  will  accustom 
the  pupils  to  the  style  of  the  prose,  which,  at  first,  on 
account  of  its  inverted  sentence,  may  be  a  source  of 
difficulty  to  them.  Refer  them  to  the  pronouncing 
vocabulary  at  the  back  for  the  fixing  of  their  pronunci- 
ation and  the  spelling  of  proper  names.  If  in  the  first 
chapter  we  can  lay  the  ghost  of  terror  that  is  roused 
by  confronting  so  many  proper  nouns  of  a  strange  com- 
position, if  we  can  familiarize  them  with  the  form  of 
the  inverted  sentence  and  other  marked  stylistic  fea- 
tures, and  if,  above  all,  we  can  vitalize  the  action  of  the 
opening  pages,  the  rest  is  comparatively  plain  sailing. 
A  very  successful  means  of  getting  the  pupils  early  into 
the  atmosphere  of  the  book  has  been  suggested  by  Miss 
Emma  Bolenius  in  her  "Council  of  the  Gods,"  worked 
out  in  her  book  Oral  English.  The  assembly  which 
Telemachus  calls  (Chapter  II)  should  always  be 
dramatized — not  by  elaborate  costuming  nor  indeed  by 
much  acting,  but  by  the  reading  of  parts  as  one  after 
another  aligns  himself  for  or  against  the  young  Tele- 
machus, who  finds  himself  confronted  with  great  re- 
sponsibilities and  a  divided  allegiance.  It  will  often 
happen  that  pupils  will  unconsciously  memorize  much 
of  the  parts  assigned  to  them  to  read.  Later  on,  pupils 
may  give  more  carefully  prepared  dramatizations.^  In 

T.     For    dramatized    scenes    from    the    Odyssey    see    Dramatization, 
Simons  and  Orr. 


20G  ENGLISH    PROBLEMS 

addition  to  this  unconscious  memorizing — for  phrases 
of  the  Odyssey  on  account  of  their  rhythm  and  repe- 
tition will  stick — definite  memory  assignments  should 
be  given,  especially  in  the  early  chapters.  This  will 
do  more  than  anything  else  to  obviate  their  diffi- 
culties in  reading.  Let  them  learn  the  beautiful 
words,  "Saying  this,  under  her  feet  she  bound  her 
beautiful  sandals,  immortal,  made  of  gold,  which 
carry  her  over  the  flood  and  over  the  boundless 
land  swift  as  a  breath  of  wind.  She  took  her 
ponderous  spear,  tipped  with  sharp  bronze,  thick,  long, 
and  strong,  with  which  she  vanquishes  the  ranks  of 
men — of  heroes,  even — when  this  daughter  of  a  mighty 
sire  is  roused  against  them.  Then  she  went  dashing 
down  the  ridges  of  Olympus  and  in  the  land  of  Ithaca 
stood  at  Odysseus'  gate,  on  the  threshold  of  his  court." 
As  they  listen  again  and  again  to  this  and  similar  pas- 
sages, the  inverted  sentence,  the  use  of  epithet,  the 
placing  of  adjective  after  the  verb  and  the  paren- 
thetical interruption — all  these  they  will  unconsciously 
adapt  themselves  to,  and  not  only  will  they  find  their 
reading  much  simpler,  but  in  some  cases,  a  certain 
unconscious  imitation  will  be  discernible  in  their  writ- 
ten work.  Other  passages  should  be  memorized,  espe- 
ially  those  that  Homer  often  repeats.  "Now  water 
for  the  hands  a  servant  brought  in  a  beautiful  pitcher 
made  of  gold  and  poured  it  out  over  a  silver  basin  for 
their  washing,"  etc. 

With  an  understanding  of  the  situation  in  Ithaca 
and  upon  Olympus,  Chapters  III  and  IV  may  be  read 
more  rapidly,  and  as  Telemachus's  experiences  are  told 
the  attention  of  the  pupils  may  be  drawn  to  the  many 


THE    TEACHING    OF    CERTAIN    CLASSICS       207 

strange  customs  of  the  early  Greeks:  their  forms  of 
hospitality,  their  religious  sacrifices  to  the  gods,  their 
superstitions,  and  the  varying  stages  of  civilization  to 
be  found  in  different  parts  of  Greece  at  that  time. 
Telemachus's  delight  at  the  wealth  of  the  house  of 
Menelausand  his  interest  in  Menelaus's  account  of 
his  travels  in  the  East  will  throw  light  upon  the  history 
of  the  times.  The  teacher  may  point  out  how  recent 
archeological  discoveries  have  established  as  historical 
fact  many  of  the  interesting  details  of  this  pre-historic 
story.  But  the  interest  of  the  student  will  naturally 
remain  with  Telemachus  in  his  search  for  his  father  and 
his  own  safe  return.  Historical  references  and  a  study 
of  the  customs  of  the  times  should  be  incidental  and 
should  not  be  made  burdensome  to  the  extent  of  killing 
the  interest  in  the  story. 

The  stay  of  Odysseus  with  the  Phaeacians,  his  meet- 
ing with  Nausicaa,  and  his  account  of  his  adventures 
will  carry  themselves  with  the  pupils.  They  will  be 
interested  in  the  enthusiasm  which  the  Greek  youths 
had  for  athletic  games,  and  they  will  see  that  the  love 
of  the  dance — "the  merry  young  men  always  wanting 
\o  go  to  the  dance  wearing  fresh  clothes,'*  is  as  old  as 
the  Phaeacians.  While  following  the  adventures  of 
Odysseus  and  tracing  his  course  upon  the  map,  it  may 
be  well  to  let  the  pupils  do  a  little  constructive  work  in 
imagination.  Let  them  suppose  that  Odysseus  had 
other  adventures  in  addition  to  those  which  he  de- 
scribes, and  let  them  in  the  telling  of  these  supple- 
mentary adventures  use,  as  far  as  possible,  the  lan- 
guage of  the  Odyssey.  They  may  try  specifically  to 
use  the  inverted  sentence,  the  epithet,  the  Homeric 


208  ENGLISH    PROBLEMS 

simile,  repetition,  etc.,  but  in  the  main  they  will 
adopt  these  forms  unconsciously  if  they  have  mem- 
orized much  and  have  had  much  reading  aloud. 

The  following  example  of  imitative  writing  based 
on  the  Odyssey  shows  to  what  extent  it  is  possible  for 
pupils  to  catch  the  spirit  as  well  as  the  phrasing  of 
Palmer's  translation. 

ODYSSEUS^S    STAY    AT   ATHENE'S    ISLAND 

After  leaving  the  wooded  island  of  Ogygia,  wily  Odysseus 
sailed  for  seven  days  and  seven  nights  without  mishap.  But  on 
the  morn  of  the  eighth  day,  earth-shaking  Poseidon  raised  a  great 
storm,  gloomy  and  grievous  to  behold.  Four  days  and  nights  it 
raged,  and  then  came  a  breathless  calm.  Soon  the  early,  rosy- 
fingered  Dawn  appeared,  and  hardy  Odysseus  and  his  men  came  in 
sight  of  a  rugged  island.  Far-seen  it  was,  and  high  were  the 
sky-stretching  pines  upon  it. 

Now  the  goddess,  clear-eyed  Athene,  resolved  to  show  worthy 
Odysseus  that  he  had  found  favor  with  a  heavenly  immortal,  and 
so  she  formed  her  plans. 

Upon  reaching  the  rugged  cliffs  Odysseus  left  the  ship  and 
spoke  to  his  men  thus :  "I  go  to  seek  the  palace  of  the  goddess, 
clear-eyed  Athene,  who  has  promised  in  a  dream,  which  I  had  last 
night  when  all  was  black,  to  show  to  me  a  picture  of  my  dear 
wife,  Penelope,  my  infant  son,  Telemachus,  and  my  revered 
father,  high-born  Laertes.  Stay  you  here  by  our  swift  black  ship." 
So  he  spoke,  and  they  did  not  disobey. 

Worthy  Odysseus  passed  through  the  woods,  moving  with  rapid 
stride,  until  he  came  to  a  high-roofed  palace,  most  beautiful  to 
behold.  Here  the  goddess,  clear-eyed  Athene,  dwelt  when  not  in 
council  on  high  Olympus.  As  when  a  woman  waits,  joyful  and 
expectant,  to  see  her  beloved  husband  as  he  returns  to  his  native 
land  from  the  cruel  wars — so  did  royal  Odysseus  wait  to  see  the 
phantom  forms  of  his  beloved  ones.  Soon  before  him  glided  the 
form  of  heedful  Penelope.  Resolve  in  her  heart  there  was,  never 
to  succumb  to  the  evil  wishes  of  the  suitors.  Next  came  his  father, 
high-born  Laertes.  Meanly-clad  he  was,  with  farm  implements  in 
his  hands.    As  hardy  Odysseus  gazed  upon  this  picture,  his  heart 


THE    TEACHING   OF    CERTAIN   CLASSICS       209 

was  filled  with  sorrow,  and  down  his  cheeks  he  let  the  big  tears 
fall.  Third  and  last  came  princely  Telemachus.  No  longer  a 
child  he  was,  but  a  man  tall  and  stout  to  behold,  and  hardy 
Odysseus  was  glad  in  his  heart  to  have  such  a  son. 

Then  raising  his  voice  he  prayed  aloud:  "0  great  father 
Zeus,  son  of  Kronos,  and  you,  0  goddess,  clear-eyed  Athene,  hear 
this,  my  suppliant  prayer :  Allow  me  to  return  to  my  high-roofed 
hall  and  native  land  that  I  may  protect  my  aged  father,  guide  m^; 
son  in  the  ways  of  wisdom,  and  bring  trouble  upon  the  haughty 
suitors.  This,  0  father  Zeus,  highest  above  all  rulers,  and  you, 
0  goddess,  clear-eyed  Athene,  grant  me,  and  I  will  offer  up  the 
choicest  of  my  flocks  when  I  reach  my  native  land."  So  he 
prayed.  And  leaving  the  stately  palace  he  came  to  his  red-cheeked 
ship  and  set  sail. 

There  may  be  some  in  the  class  who  will  be  inter- 
ested in  trying  to  turn  some  especially  beautiful  parts 
of  the  prose  translation  into  blank  verse. 

That  part  of  the  story  which  deals  with  Odysseus's 
return  from  Phaeacia  to  Ithaca  should  be  read  rapidly 
with  only  enough  question  and  comment  to  keep  the 
thread  of  the  story  clear.  The  pupil  will  be  anxious 
to  hasten  on  to  the  part  in  the  story  where  Odysseus 
metes  out  to  the  suitors  the  doom  that  was  prophe- 
sied for  them. 

In  the  intensive  study  of  any  piece  of  literature 
allowance  must  be  made  for  a  possible  drop  in  the 
sustained  interest  of  the  pupils  after  a  number  of 
weeks.  For  this  reason  if  the  early  work  has  been 
done  carefully  enough  to  assure  a  clear  understanding 
of  the  story  in  its  various  relations,  the  latter  part 
may — in  fact,  should — always  go  more  quickly,  and 
details  should  be  omitted  that  are  not  essential,  in 
order  that  the  interest  in  the  book  may  not  die  out 
before  the  end  is  reached.  It  is  hardly  ever  possible 
nor  even  desirable  to  give  the  same  painstaking  at- 


210  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

tention  to  every  part  of  even  the  greatest  master- 
piece. Other  elements  must  enter  into  our  calcula- 
tion, and  in  the  case  of  the  Odyssey,  we  must  at  all 
odds  clear  ourselves  of  the  charge  of  killing  the  charm 
of  a  great  story  by  too  great  insistence  upon  detail. 
How  shall  we  relate  the  study  of  the  Odyssey  to  the 
life  of  the  boy  and  girl  in  the  junior  high  school? 
How  shall  we  link  the  present  with  the  past?  The 
past  is  the  present  so  far  as  fundamental  human  nature 
is  concerned,  and  bravery,  resourcefulness,  endurance, 
faithfulness  are  still  ideals  to  be  cherished — ideals  that 
have  been  realized  in  the  recent  war. .  If  the  pupils  in 
the  Odyssey  class  are  studying  ancient  history  there  is 
a  splendid  opportunity  for  correlation  with  their  his- 
tory work.  If  they  are  not  studying  ancient  history, 
the  Odyssey  is  of  even  greater  value  to  them  because 
it  will  supply  them  with  many  important  facts  of  his- 
torical value  from  one  of  the  greatest  of  source  books. 
Perhaps  a  study  of  the  Odyssey  may  lead  the  pupil  to 
look  about  him  and  see  to  what  an  extraordinary  ex- 
tent modern  American  life  is  dependent  upon  Greek 
tradition.  Even  the  advertisements  of  business  con- 
cerns imply  a  knowledge  on  the  part  of  the  public  of 
Greek  mythology.  Otherwise  why  do  we  have  the  Ajax 
tire,  the  Hercules  Explosive  Co.,  the  Titan  Trucks, 
etc.?  It  might  be  interesting  to  let  the  pupils  glance 
through  the  back  of  any  magazine  to  see  to  what 
extent  we  have  adopted  the  terminology  of  the  Greeks. 
The  finest  buildings  in  America,  especially  the  pub- 
lic buildings,  are,  with  few  exceptions,  modeled  along 
the  lines  of  Greek  architecture;  the  decorations  in 
many  show  the  Greek  influence.     ATI  literature  after 


THE    TEACHING   OF   CERTAIN   CLASSICS       211 

the  Greeks  is  profoundly  affected  by  .this  great  epic 
literature.  The  pupils'  appreciation  of  Milton,  of 
Tennyson,  of  Keats  will  depend  largely  upon  how 
much  of  the  rich  poetical  lore  of  the  past  has  been 
brought  to  them  through  their  study  of  the  Odyssey. 
Not  only  is  much  of  the  poetry  that  the  pupil  will 
read  saturated  with  Greek  myth  and  story^  but  even 
the  newspapers  of  today,  in  both  article  and  cartoon, 
constantly  reveal  the  dependence  of  English  thought 
and  expression  upon  the  ancient  Greeks.  When 
Senator  Poindexter  says  that  the  constitution  for  the 
League  of  Nations  was  presented  to  the  world  only 
after  it  had  been  long  discussed  and  finally  completed, 
when  "it  came  forth  full  panoplied  as  though  born 
from  the  head  of  Jove,"  the  allusion  and  the  picture 
are  quite  outside  the  vision  of  one  who  is  unfamiliar 
with  Greek  mythology.  ^^^^  p   g^^^^^ 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Bolenius,  Emma.   The  Teaching  of  Oral  English,  Chapter  VII. 

Bulfinch,  Thomas.    Age  of  Fable. 

Gayley,  Charles  M.     Classic  Myths. 

Guerber,  H.  A.     Myths  of  Greece  and  Rome. 

Gulick,  Charles  B.    Life  of  the  Ancient  Greeks. 

Keller,  Albert  G.     Homeric  Society. 

Simons,  Sarah  E.  and  Orr,  Clem  I.    Dramatization. 

SHAKESPEARE 

A  college  professor  recently  said,  with  an  air  of 
pride,  that  he  did  not  even  touch  upon  Shakespeare 
in  his  course  on  the  development  of  the  English  drama. 
"There  is  too  much  Shakespeare  in  our  schools,"  he 
contended.    "Give  the  boys  and  girls  live  stuff." 


212  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

Is  not  that  just  what  we  are  trying  to  do  when  we 
give  the  pupils  in  our  schools  Shakespeare?  Cannot 
th6  study  of  Shakespeare  be  made  ^'live  stuff''  just  as 
easily  as  the  study  of  Shaw  or  Galsworthy?  It  is  to 
be  hoped  that  the  nation-wide  celebration  of  1916  in 
honor  of  Shakespeare  did  quicken  interest  to  a  slight 
degree,  at  least,  in  things  Shakespearean.  Let  us  as- 
sume, at  any  rate,  that  it  did,  and  let  us  do  our 
Shakespearean  bit  in  every  one  of  the  years  of  both 
junior  and  senior  high  school  to  develop  in  our  pupils 
a  love  of  Shakespeare. 

Reading  and  presentation  in  classroom  or  assembly 
hall  of  scenes  from  Shakespeare's  plays  can  hardly  fail 
to  interest  pupils.  And  why  not  make  a  Shake- 
spearean festival  as  well  as  the  spring-meet  a  yearly 
event  in  the  school  annals?  Many  Shakespearean 
fetes  were  given  in  1916  by  schools  all  over  the  country. 
Have  you  heard  of  many  Shakespearean  festivals  given 
by  schools  since  1916?  One  of  the  educational  pur- 
poses of  the  widespread  Shakespearean  activity  of  the 
tercentenary  was  to  quicken  into  lif^  the  study  of 
Shakespeare.  It  is  not  too  late  yet.  Do  not  let  the 
spark  of  interest  then  aroused  be  extinguished.  It  is 
still  smoldering  and  can  be  fanned  into  flame,  if  we 
teachers  will  do  our  part  in  helping  to  create  and  de- 
velop a  love  of  the  master  dramatist. 

/.  In  the  Junior  High  School 

According  to  Mr.  Chubb,  introductory  work  on 
Shakespeare  in  every  year  of  the  high  school  should 
consist  of  the  teacher's  reading  the  play  aloud,  with 
minimum  comment,  to  the  class.    He  quotes  Professor 


THE    TEACHING    OF    CERTAIN    CLASSICS       213 

Corson  as  citing  Sir  Henry  Taylor  as  authority  for  the 
statement  that  the  reading  of  Shakespeare  to  boys  and 
girls  carries  with  it  "a  deeper  cultivation  than  anything 
else  which  can  be  done  to  cultivate  them.''  Certainly 
in  the  junior  high  school  the  plays  should  be  read 
aloud  in  class  in  character,  the  teacher  often  taking 
part.  No  text  study  should  be  made ;  much  memoriz- 
ing should  be  done;  and  frequent  classroom  dramati- 
zations should  be  given  during  the  course  of  the  study. 
The  teacher  should  play  the  part  of  dictionary  and 
reference  book,  clearing  up  obscure  passages  and  ex- 
plaining strange  words  and  allusions.  The  object  of 
the  junior  high-school  Shakespeare  study  is  to  create 
a  love  of  the  poet  and  arouse  a  desire  to  learn  the 
lines  and  act  out  the  parts  and  finally  to  see  the  play 
acted  when  possible.  This  cannot  be  done  by  formal 
work.  It  can  be  done  only  by  hearing  the  lines,  learn- 
ing many  of  them,  and  acting  out  scenes  frequently. 
Such  procedure  has  brought  results  in  certain  schools; 
it  is  worth  trying  in  all  classes. 

The  following  plays  are  suggested  for  classroom 
study  in  the  junior  high  school:  in  the  seventh  year, 
A  Midsummer  Night's  Dream;  in  the  eighth,  Julius 
Caesar;  and  in  the  ninth,  As  You  Like  It. 

11.  In  the  Senior  High  School 

No  epoch  is  more  dramatic  than  Shakespeare's 
epoch;  no  times  lend  themselves  more  readily  to 
dramatization  than  the  times  of  Elizabeth.  Let  the 
pupils  read  about  the  age,  the  theaters,  the  Mermaid 
Tavern,  the  tales  of  adventure  brought  back  from  the 
West.     Let  them  become  acquainted  with  the  per- 


214  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

sonalities  of  the  period.  Then  let  them  present  these 
personalities  before  the  class,  under  certain  circum- 
stances, in  various  picturesque  settings.  Let  them 
dramatize  the  age  of  Shakespeare,  and  you  will  give 
them  aids  which  surely  make  "live  stuff"  of  the  plays 
they  read  and  study.  We  want  the  scenes  and  places 
in  Shakespeare's  life  and  plays  to  become  living 
realities  to  the  boys  and  girls.  We  want  the  pupils  to 
become  familiar  with  Stratford  and  London ;  with  the 
Swan  and  the  Globe ;  with  the  manner  of  giving  a  play 
in  Shakespeare's  day;  with  the  people  among  whom 
the  poet  moved;  with  the  Mermaid  Tavern  and  its 
frequenters;  with  the  dress  and  architecture  and  ways 
of  the  age.  The  library  cannot  furnish  too  many  illus- 
trated books,  magazine  articles,  and  lantern  slides  for 
our  purposes.  These  will  give  the  pupil  the  raw  ma- 
terial for  his  dramatizations,  will  excite  the  impulse 
to  the  exercise  of  the  creative  faculty.  Encourage  the 
pupils  in  all  years  to  dramatize  freely  scenes  from  the 
life  and  times  of  Shakespeare  and  to  act  these  drama- 
tizations before  their  classmates.  Let  them  all  in 
imagination  become  citizens  of  Shakespeare's  day  and 
age. 

Apropos  of  the  dramatization  by  the  pupils  of  scenes 
from  the  life  of  Shakespeare  a  few  possibilities  are  sug- 
gested: A  domestic  scene  in  Shakespeare's  life  at 
Stratford,  in  the  early  days;  one  in  later  life  (see 
Howells's  Seen  and  Unseen  in  Stratford  for  material) ; 
a  meeting  between  Bacon  and  Shakespeare  to  show 
that  Bacon  would  not  have  written  Shakespeare's  plays 
if  he  could  have  done  so  (see  Howells's  Seen  and 
Unseen  in  Stratford  and  Noyes's  Tales  of  the  Mermaid 


THE    TEACHING    OF    CERTAIN    CLASSICS       215 

Tavern  for  material) ;  a  scene  in  London  before  the 
production  of  a  certain  play,  ending  with  the  dramatic 
summoning  of  the  poet  before  Elizabeth  to  give  a  per- 
formance. For  atmosphere  here  see  Mrs.  Louise 
Beecher  Chancellor's  The  Players  of  London. 

Many  books  come  to  mind  immediately  from  which 
matter  might  be  culled  for  such  purposes:  Traill's 
Social  England;  Jenks's  In  the  Days  of  Shakespeare ; 
Symonds's  Shakespeare's  Predecessors  in  the  English 
Drama;  Lee's  Life  of  William  Shakespeare;  Wendell's 
William  Shakespeare;  Collier's  Memoirs  of  the  Prin- 
cipal Actors  in  the  Plays  of  Shakespeare;  Alexander's 
Autobiography  of  Shakespeare;  Harris's  The  Man 
Shakespeare  and  His  Tragic  Life;  Johnson's  Shake- 
speare and  His  Critics;  Sherman's  What  Is  Shake- 
speare?; Wallace's  New  Shakespearean  Discoveries; 
Beeching's  William  Shakespeare,  Player,  Playmaker, 
and  Poet. 

The  following  dramatization  based  on  Alfred  Noyes's 
Tales  of  the  Mermaid  Tavern  and  Louise  Beecher 
Chancellor's  The  Players  of  London  is  suggested  for 
classroom  production  by  pupil  players: 

1.      Based  on  Tales  of  the  Mermaid  Tavern 

A.  Prologue  (giving)  ^ 

1.  The  Situation 

2.  The  Description  of  Inn 

3.  The  Description  of  Characters 

(This  requires  some  cutting  and  a  very  slight  readjustment  of 
lines  in  the  Introduction.) 

A  dream — three  hundred  years  ago 

Of  London,  City  of  the  Clouds — 

A  twisted  street,  a  little  narrow  street, 


21G  ENGLISH    PROBLEMS 

The  rough  wet  cobbles  gleaming  far  away 
Like  opals,  where  it  ended  on  the  sky, 
And  overhead  the  darkly  smiling  face 
Of  that  old  wizard  inn  of  mullioned  panes 
And  crazy  beams  and  overhanging  eaves. 
The  Mermaid  with  its  sign-board  quaint. 
Where  that  white-breasted  siren  of  the  sea 
Curled  her  moon-silvered  tail  among  such  rocks 
As  never  in  the  merriest  seaman's  tale 
Broke  the  blue-bliss  of  fabulous  lagoons 
Beyond  the  Spanish  Main. 

And  through  the  dream, 
Even  as  I  stood  and  listened,  came  a  sound 
Of  clashing  wine-cups ;  then  a  deep-voiced  song 
Made  the  old  timbers  of  the  Mermaid  Inn 
Shake  as  a  galleon  shakes  in  a  gale  of  wind 
When  she  rolls  glorying  through  the  Ocean-sea. 

And  all  at  once  there  swaggered  down  the  street 

A  figure  like  foot-feathered  Mercury — 

Tall,  straight,  and  splendid  as  a  sunset  cloud 

Clad  in  a  crimson  doublet  and  trunk-hose, 

A  rapier  at  his  side;  over  his  arm 

He  swings  a  gorgeous  murrey-colored  cloak 

Of  Ciprus  velvet,  caked  and  smeared  with  mud  .... 

B.  At  the  sign  of  the  Mermaid 

Characters:  Shakespeare;  Bacon;  Spenser;  Mar- 
lowe; Ben  Jonson;  Michael  Drayton. 
Scene:  Shakespeare  and  Spenser  discovered  look- 
ing over  the  manuscript  of  the  Faerie  Queen; 
Jonson  seated  on  the  settle  himiming  "Drink 
to  me  OB^  with  thine  eyes,"  between  sips  of 
malmsey;  Bacon  seated  comfortably  before  the 
fire. 

Purpose:  to  bring  out  Bacon's  essentially  prosaic 
nature.  (Adapted  from  Black  Bill's  Honey 
Moon.) 

C,  For  the  Sake  of  Robert  Greene,  Player. 

Characters:  Ben  Jonson;  Kit  Marlowe;  Will 
Shakespeare ;  Sir  Walter  Raleigh ;  Master  Rich- 
ard Bamc;  a  Puritan;  a  Company  of  Players, 


THE   TEACHING   OF    CERTAIN   CLASSICS       217 

Scene:  Jonson  and  Marlowe  discovered  discuss- 
ing Shakespeare^s  Venus  and  Adonis,  over 
their  wine.  Enter  the  Puritan,  Bame.  His 
intent  is  to  cast  reproach  and  ignominy  on  Rob- 
ert Greene  because  of  the  manner  of  his  death. 
Enter,  later,  Shakespeare  and  the  others.  They 
all  unite  in  playing  a  trick  on  Master  Bame  by 
which  his  silence  is  purchased  and  his  true 
character  revealed. 

Purpose :     to  show  the  loyalty  of  the  Mermaid  group 
one  to  the  other,  and  especially  to  show  the 
largeness  of  soul  of  Shakespeare. 
D.  A  May-Day  Frolic  at  the  Mermaid. 

Characters:  the  Morris  Dancers;  Sir  Fool  (Will 
Kemp,  the  Player) ;  Friar  Tuck  (Ben  Jon- 
son) ;  Poets  and  Players. 

Scene:  A  gay  procession  of  merry-makers  dis- 
covered entering  the  Mermaid  and  taking  pos- 
session.    Their  revels.     Songs  and  dances. 

Purpose :    to  present  a  characteristic  May-Day  cele- 
bration of  the  age.     (Adapted  from  A  Com- 
panion of  a  3Iile.) 
1  r.  Based  on  Mrs.  Chancellor's  The  Players  of  London, 

The  First  Performance  of  Borneo  and  Juliet  by  Lord 
Hundson's  Players. 

Act  I. 
The  Rehearsal 

Characters :  Master  Will  Shakespeare ;  Philip  Condell ;  the 
Two  Burbages;  Messenger;  Other  Players. 

Scene :  Court  yard  in  front  of  Philip  Condell's  lodgings. 
Shakespeare  discovered  walking  up  and  down  im- 
patiently. Richard  Burbage  enters  and  informs 
Shakespeare  that  Philip  Condell,  who  is  to  play  the 
part  of  Juliet  in  the  new  play,  Romeo  and  Juliet, 
which  is  to  be  performed  before  the  Queen  on  the 
occasion  of  the  37th  anniversary  of  her  reign,  is  so 
ill  that  he  cannot  take  part.  Shakespeare  orders  Bur- 
bage  to  go  up  and  bring  him  down,  for  he  must 
play,  he  insists — and  he  dispatches  a  messenger  to 
one  John  Florio,  an  Italian  physician,  for  a  healing 


218  ENGLISH    PROBLEMS 

potion.  Biirbage  goes  up  and  after  a  few  minutes 
reappears  carrying  the  sick  boy  in  his  arms.  They 
give  him  wine,  and  he  is  quickly  revived.  The  re- 
hearsal begins.  Though  somewhat  puzzled  as  to  cues, 
exits,  and  entrances  Philip  delivers  his  lines  splendidly. 
The  balcony  scene  is  rehearsed.  Comments  are  made 
by  Shakespeare  and  the  others.  Philip  is  treated  with 
great  care  and  put  in  a  sedan  chair;  the  procession 
'  of  players  then  moves  off  to  Whitehall,  where  they  are 

to  play  before  the  Queen. 

Act  IL 
Assembling  of  the  Actors. 

Scene  I:  Assembling  of  the  actors,  in  which  Shakespeare 
questions  Philip  curiously  and  makes  a  discovery 
(Philip's  twin  sister  has  come  in  his  stead).  Place: 
anteroom  before  the  great  hall.  The  Earl  of  South- 
ampton aiTives  and  joins  in  the  conversation.  The 
Players  assemble  one  by  one. 

Scene  II :  The  End  of  the  Play. 

The  court  is  assembled,  the  epilogue  delivered,  and 
the  Players  file  in  procession  before  the  Queen.  She 
gives  a  word  of  commendation  to  them  and  commis- 
sions Master  Will  to  wTite  a  comedy  before  the  year 
is  by,  so  that  the  tears  shed  over  the  sad  tale  of  the 
lovers  shall  be  forgot  in  laughter  .  .  .  laughter  in- 
duced by  Falstaff. 

Scene  III.  After  the  Play — the  Discovery. 

The  actors  are  seated  around  a  table,  feasting.  Sud- 
denly Philip  enters  and  denounces  his  sister  for  her 
act  of  joining  the  Players.  As  he  reviles  her,  her 
Puritan  lover  enters,  champions  her  act,  and  carries 
her  off.     Shakespeare  makes  peace. 


And  what  shall  we  do  with  the  plays  themselves? 
Why  not  reduce  our  text  study  of  Shakespeare  in  the 
senior  as  well  as  in  the  junior  high  school  to  the 
minimum  essential  whicji  is  the  sum  of — one  might 


THE    TEACHING   OF    CERTAIN   CLASSICS       21fl 

almost  say  nothing — and  let  our  pupils  devote  all  their 
time  to  learning  Shakespeare's  lines  and  reciting  them 
in  character  before  their  classmates?  Let  the  teacher 
act  as  interpreter  of  difficult  passages,  and  give  freely 
to  the  pupils.  If  all  the  time  usually  given  to  careful 
exegesis  of  the  text  were  devoted  to  memorizing  beau- 
tiful passages  from  the  plays,  what  a  store  of  treasures 
for  the  future  would  be  amassed!  Is  not  the  experi- 
ment worth  trying?  And  then,  as  before  suggested, 
a  Shakespearean  festival  in  the  open  might  be  cele- 
brated with  song  and  dance  and  fairy  revels,  with 
pomp  and  antique  pageantry. 

A  remarkable  thing  happens  in  the  case  of  pupils 
learning  Shakespeare's  lines.  At  first  there  is  difficulty 
owing  to  the  strangeness  of  blank  verse.  But  once  the 
pupils  get  the  swing  of  it,  Shakespeare  does  the  rest. 
Shakespeare  has  done  more  for  the  actor  than  any 
other  dramatist.  This  is  the  testimony  of  all  teachers 
who  have  trained  pupils  for  Shakespearean  per- 
formances. 

The  following  list  is  suggested  for  study,  which 
means  class  reading  and  classroom  presentation:  In 
the  tenth  year.  Twelfth  Night;  in  the  eleventh,  Henry 
V ;  and  in  the  twelfth  year,  Macbeth. 

The  collateral  reading  may  be  assigned  by  groups, 
each  group  deciding  to  take  a  certain  part  of  the  play 
when  only  one  play  is  required,  certain  plays  and  parts 
of  plays  when  more  plays  than  one  are  required.  If 
the  group  prefers  to  report  on  a  play  that  is  not  listed, 
it  should  be  its  privilege  to  do  so.  Each  group  should 
elect  a  leader  who  should  be  responsible  for  the  report 
to  the  class.    A  part,  at  least,  of  such  report  should 


220  ENGLISH    PROBLEMS 

feature  the  acting  of  scenes  or  portions  of  scenes 
from  the  plays  chosen  before  the  pupils  of  the  class. 
The  explanation  necessary  for  the  understanding  of 
the  audience  may  be  made  by  a  Chorus.  For  sugges- 
tions here  the  pupils  may  be  referred  to  the  part  of 
the  Chorus  in  Henry  V.  They  might,  some  of  them, 
even  essay  blank  verse  for  this  activity. 

Dramatization  by  the  pupils  of  scenes  in  the  life 
and  plays  of  Shakespeare  will  do  more  to  visualize  the 
age  and  to  vitalize  the  man  than  anything  else  could 
do.  The  study  of  the  plays  by  means  of  the  "acting" 
method  will  make  Shakespeare  a  living,  breathing  per- 
sonality in  the  experience  of  the  student. 

FOR  FURTHER  THOUGHT 

1.  Suggest  scenes  from  plays  of  Shakespeare  suitable  for 
classroom  presentation. 

2.  Suggest  scenes  from  the  story  of  Shakespeare^s  life  suitable 
for  classroom  dramatization. 

3.  Discuss  the  value  of  having  the  plays  read  aloud  in  class. 

4.  Make  a  list  of  scenes  from  various  plays  which  might  be 
knit  together  by  prologue,  chorus,  and  epilogue  into  an  appropri- 
ate spring  Shakespeare  festival. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Abbott,  Allan.    "School  Productions  of  Shakespeare's  Plays*'  in 

Shakespearean  Studies. 
Chubb,  P.     The  Teaching  of  English,  page  287. 
Chubb,  P.,  Editor.     The  Shakespeare  Tercentenary,  prepared  by 

the  Drama  League  of  America. 
Gilmore,  A.  H.    King  Shakespeare,  A  Masque  of  Praise  for  the 

Shakespeare  Tercentenary. 
Mackaye,   P.     Caliban,   Shakespeare    Tercentenary    Celebration. 

Presented  in  New  York. 
Simons,  S.  E.     A  Shakespeare  Festival.    Presented  by  the  High 

Schools  of  Washington,  D.  C. 


THE    TEACHING   OF   CERTAIN   CLASSICS       221 

The  English  Journal: 

Booth,  Julia  E.    The  Teaching  of  Shakespeare,  April,  1920. 
Brookins,  Julia,  L.  C.    "A  Midsummer  Night's  Dream  in  the 

Junior  High  School,"  October,  1918. 
Graves,   I.     "A   Plan   for   Reading  A   Midsummer   Night's 

Dream/'  June,  1915. 
FitzGeralcl,  Ellen.    "Shakespeare  in  the  Elementary  School," 

June,  1914. 
Stratton,   C.     "A   Shakespeare  Festival  in  Time  of  War," 

November,  1916. 

The  Reorganization  Bulletin,  page  70. 


BURKE 

Burke  has  come  into  his  own  through  the  war.  As 
Enghshmen  and  Americans,  "descendants  of  Enghsh- 
men,"  stood  shoulder  to  shoulder  in  the  great  war  for 
liberty,  we  realized,  as  never  before,  what  John  Fiske 
meant  when  he  said,  'It  is  quite  wrong  and  misleading, 
therefore,  to  remember  the  Revolutionary  War  as  a 
struggle  between  the  British  people  and  the  American 
people.  It  was  a  struggle  between  two  hostile  prin- 
ciples, each  of  which  was  represented  in  both  coun- 
tries. In  winning  the  good  fight,  our  forefathers  won 
a  victory  for  England  as  well  as  for  America."  It  is 
through  a  study  of  the  words  of  Burke,  "that  foremost 
friend  of  America,"  that  boys  and  girls  may  best 
understand  what  are  those  principles  of  liberty  which 
our  forefathers  won  for  us,  and  which  we  as  a  nation 
and  the  other  allied  nations  have  been  fighting  to  pre- 
serve for  all  peoples. 

Burke's  Speech  on  Conciliation  has  become  so  sig- 
nificant in  these  days  that  an  effort  to  bring  it  into  line 
with  the  life  of  the  times  is  unnecessary.    It  is  the  life 


222  ENGLISH    PROBLEMS 

of  the  time — the  old  struggle  between  autocracy  and 
constitutional  liberty.  Would  it  be  possible  to  sug- 
gest topics  of  more  burning  interest  today  than  the 
relation  of  an  empire  to  its  colonies,  the  right  of  self- 
determination  in  small  nations,  the  dangers  of  a  policy 
of  repression?  And  yet  the  vital  interest  in  the  speech 
may  be  killed  if  the  approach  and  method  are  wrong. 
Burke  is  not  easy  reading  for  high-school  students, 
and,  in  these  days,  when  classes  are  socialized,  and  the 
study  of  literature  is  made  attractive  by  every  possible 
device  of  picture,  pageant,  and  play,  the  problem  of 
holding  the  attention  of  pupils  to  the  long  and  arduous 
analysis  of  such  abstract  reading  as  Burke's  speech, 
may  offer  some  real  difficulties. 

The  very  worst  way  in  which  to  approach  the  speech 
is  by  beginning  with  an  analytical  outline  of  it.  Never 
must  it  be  forgotten  that  this  was  a  delivered  speech, 
at  a  crisis  of  affairs  so  intense  that  no  period  of  our 
history  can  compare  with  it.  That  period  the  pupils 
should  be  acquainted  with  before  they  begin  to  read 
the  speech.  The  situation  in  Europe  can  best  be 
sketched  briefly  by  the  teacher.  The  pupils  in  the 
American  history  class  will  be  easily  able  to  con- 
tribute the  essential  facts  of  the  development  of  a 
spirit  of  resistance  in  the  colonies  and  the  immediate 
causes  leading  to  the  Revolution.  Not  too  much  time 
should  be  spent  on  historical  preliminaries.  The  essen- 
tial facts  can  be  readily  grouped  under  (1)  the  relation 
between  England  and  the  American  colonies  before 
1760,  (2)  the  change  in  England's  policy  at  that  time 
and  the  reasons  for  it,  (3)  the  important  events  be- 
tween   1760    and    Burke's   Speech.     The   best   way 


THE    TEACHING    OF    CERTAIN   CLASSICS       223 

to  get  the  class  into  the  spirit  of  the  time  is  through 
class  debates  on  the  Stamp  Act,  the  Boston  Port  Bill, 
and  other  questions  of  the  time.  In  this  way  they 
will  learn  the  necessary  historical  facts  and  get  a  feel- 
ing for  the  situation.  Such  debates  at  the  beginning 
of  the  work  will  also  serve  the  purpose  of  reviewing 
the  form  of  the  argumentative  brief,  and  thus  facilitate 
the  analysis  of  the  speech.  A  reading  of  Chatham's 
speech,  "On  the  Right  to  Tax  America,"  will  be  helpful 
at  this  time,  as  will,  also,  parts  of  Burke's  Speech  on 
American  Taxation. 

While  the  class  is  debating  and  studying  the  period, 
let  them  read  the  speech  through  once  at  home.  They 
will  not  understand  it  all,  biit  the  main  outlines  will  be 
clear,  and  as  they  begin  to  study  more  specifically  they 
will  be  able  to  see  the  relation  of  each  part  to  the  pur- 
pose of  the  whole.  Special  topics  on  the  Parliament  of 
Burke's  time,  on  the  man  and  his  period,  will  help  to 
create  interest.  It  will  be  helpful  also  at  this  time  to 
call  attention  to  certain  differences  between  English 
and  American  forms  of  government,  such  as  the  un- 
written constitution  of  England  as  contrasted  with  our 
very  definite  document,  the  powers  of  the  ministry  and 
its  relation  to  Parliament  as  contrasted  with  the  rela- 
tions of  our  executive  and  law-making  departments. 

When  the  study  of  the  speech  itself  begins,  do  not 
make  the  mistake  of  outlining  it  te  death.  Much  of 
it  should  be  read  aloud  and  made  the  subject  of  in- 
formal discussion.  Since  the  pupils  have  read  the 
speech  as  a  whole,  it  is  desirable  to  block  out  the  main 
divisions  before  outlining  in  detail.  Then  choose  cer- 
tain parts  which  are  especially  fine  examples  of  Burke's 


224  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

analytical  powers,  and  let  the  pupils  work  these  out 
very  carefully.  These  may  be :  a  thorough  analysis  of 
such  a  paragraph  of  close  thought  as  the  discussion  of 
the  first  cause  of  the  fierce  spirit  of  liberty;  a  short 
brief  of  the  unit  in  which  Burke  establishes  that  it  is 
impracticable  and  inexpedient  to  prosecute  the  spirit 
as  criminal;  his  handling  of  the  four  examples;  the 
analysis  of  Lord  North's  plan,  etc.  Burke's  Speech 
offers  more  splendid  opportunities  for  outlining  than 
any  other  masterpiece.  That  is  no  reason  why  one 
should  take  all  the  opportunities  offered  at  the  ex- 
pense of  crowding  out  other  benefits  which  may  be 
gained  from  a  study  of  the  speech.  Do  not  make  a 
long  written  brief  of  the  whole  speech.  This  tends  to 
become  mechanical,  and  in  the  end  a  mere  feat  of 
memory.  Such  an  outline  they  may  get  from  any  text- 
book. "It  is  a  weed  that  grows  in  any  soil."  Sub- 
stitute instead  an  oral  brief  for  all  except  those  units 
which  you  have  selected  for  (detailed  work.  In  this 
way  the  students  may  give  from  day  to  day  an  outline 
of  the  main  thoughts  of  the  speech,  in  words  that 
change  as  often  as  the  analysis  is  given.  This  will 
focus  their  attention  upon  Burke's  line  of  argument 
rather  than  upon  any  particular  wording  of  it.  If 
Burke's  speech  has  a  fault  it  is  in  its  minuteness  and 
subtlety.  "He  went  on  refining  while  they  thought 
of  dining."  Let  us  see  to  it  that  the  fault  if  it  exists 
is  corrected,  not  exaggerated  by  our  methods  of 
teaching. 

The  mental  pabulum  which  Burke's  Speech  offers  is 
the  best  antidote  for  the  grasshopper  type  of  mind  that 
nibbles  at  everything  and  understands  nothing.     To 


THE    TEACHING   OF   CERTAIN   CLASSICS       225 

inspire  the  student  with  an  appreciation  of  the  mas- 
terly skill  of  handling  such  a  sustained  and  elaborate 
composition  is  to  set  for  him  a  standard  of  unity  in 
multiplicity  that  he  can  get  nowhere  else.  For  there 
is  "reigning  throughout  the  whole  a  massive  unity  of 
design  like  that  of  a  great  cathedral,  whatever  may  be 
the  intricacy  of  its  design.'^  The  pupil  may  learn  to 
know  the  beauty  of  this  great  cathedral  and  to  feel  its 
inspiration  if  the  aisles  are  lighted  for  him  and  his  eyes 
are  directed  toward  its  great  columns  and  arches  as 
well  as  toward  its  inimitable  traceries. 

To  get  the  meaning  of  Burke  there  must  be  a  very 
definite  study  of  words.  Frequent  short  vocabulary 
tests  should  be  given  at  the  beginning  of  recitation 
periods  on  new  assignments.  These  tests  should  some- 
times be  in  the  form  of  sentences  using  new  or  un- 
usual words  in  their  correct  meaning.  Encourage  the 
pupils  when  they  are  giving  the  oral  brief  to  use 
Burke's  own  words  in  so  far  as  they  naturally  suggest 
themselves.  This  will  familiarize  them  unconsciously 
with  their  meaning,  and  thus  through  oral  imitation 
improve  their  own  vocabularies. 

Written  imitations  of  Burke  are  easily  practicable, 
especially  of  certain  units  that  have  marked  stylistic 
qualities.  A  favorite  paragraph  for  imitation  is  the  one 
beginning,  "The  proposition  is  peace."  Others  which 
have  been  successfully  imitated  are  those  dealing  with 
his  objection  to  force  and  his  comparison  of  his  own 
plan  with  that  of  Lord  North.  The  following  imita-^ 
tion  shows  how  the  student  has  caught  not  only  Burke's 
method  of  presentation  but  his  manner  and  spirit  as 
well. 


226  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

MISS    LYDIA    PINKHURST^S    SPEECH    ON    MOVING    HER 

RESOLUTION  FOR  GRANTING  WOMAN  THE  RIGHT 

TO  PROPOSE  MARRIAGE  IN  LEAP  YEAR 


Delivered  in  the  House  of  Commons, 
January  10, 1980 

Madam  Speaker: 

I  trust  that  notwithstanding  the  bills  already  in  hand  for 
"Limiting  and  Restricting  the  Privileges  of  Husbands,"  for  "In- 
creasing the  Tax  on  Bachelors,"  and  "Lowering  the  Tariff  on 
Lace,  Ribbons,  and  Cosmetics,"  you  will  hear  patiently  a  few 
words  I  have  to  say  before  laying  on  the  table  a  resolution  of 
great  and  immediate  importance.  With  these  vast  issues  in  hand 
you  may  deem  it  unwise  to  c6nsider  any  new  project  and  prefer 
that  it  be  deferred  to  a  later  date.  Being  myself,  like  most  of 
my  sex,  inclined  to  procrastination,  I  would  gladly  wait  for  a 
more  favorable  occasion,  but.  Madam,  ten  of  the  precious  366 
days  are  already  gone,  and  this  is  a  leap-year  proposition.  Alas, 
another  leap  year  will  find  us  all  four  years  older.  Delay  is 
impossible!    The  present  is  the  time  to  act! 

Surely  this  is  an  awful  subject,  for  upon  it  hangs  the  destiny 
of  woman.  Is  my  statement  overdrawn  ?  No !  To  woman  mar- 
riage is  destiny. 

Being  myself  unmarried,  there  may  be  some  present  who  do  not 
think  me  qualified  to  speak  on  this  subject.  If  such  there  be,  I 
proudly  confess  that  I  have  declined  no  less  than  six  proposals, 
and  might  have  led  on  other  men  had  I  not  desired  to  spare  their 
feelings.  Madam,  I  have  unselfishly  sacrificed  myself  that  I 
might  better  serve  my  country.  Will  you  not  grant  indulgence 
toward  human  frailty  if  I  pause  to  wipe  away  a  tear? 

When  I  first  had  the  honor  of  a  seat  in  this  house,  you  were 
considering  a  bill  "To  Grant  Women  the  Sole  Right  to  Apply  for 
Divorce."  At  that  period  I  took  pains  to  instruct  myself  in  all 
matters  pertaining  to  courtship,  marriage,  and  divorce  that  I 
might  better  understand  the  subject. 

In  this  posture  things  stood  until  one  week  ago,  when  I  re- 
ceived a  letter  from  one  of  my  constituents  which  so  touched 
and  grieved  me  that  I  nerved  myself  to  speak.  The  pitiful 
appeal  of  this  young  girl  read  as  follows; 


THE   TEACHING   OF   CERTAIN   CLASSICS       227 

"Dear  Miss  Pinkhurst: 

"I  have  known  a  young  man  for  nearly  five  years.  He  is  very 
good  to  me,  and  I  think  he  loves  me,  but  he  has  never  spoken  of 
marriage.  He  calls  nearly  every  night,  and  people  think  we 
are  engaged.  I  cannot  ask  him  if  he  intends  to  marry  me. 
What  am  I  to  do? 

"Your  faithful  constituent, 

Does  not  the  plight  of  this  poor  girl  stir  you  to  anger?  If 
this  is  the  fate  of  the  youth  of  the  land,  the  fate  of  the  girl 
possessed  of  every  charm,  what  may  we  expect  of  those  in  whom 
wisdom  and  experience  have  supplanted  beauty?  Does  not  this 
terrifying  aspect  of  the  situation  make  it  evident  to  a  discern- 
ment even  duller  than  yours  that  no  pinched,  occasional  system 
will  be  adequate? 

I  perceive  by  the  expression  of  some  ladies  present  that  they 
ask,  "Why  not  do  as  our  mothers  did?"  What  did  our  mothers 
do?  Unfortunately  there  is  a  lack  of  statistics  on  this  point.  I 
have  asked  an  aged  widow  how  she  brought  about  the  crisis. 
She  says,  "I  didn't  have  a  real  proposal.  I  just  stepped  on  a 
snake  when  I  was  out  walking  with  John."  In  addition  to  her 
statement,  I  find  in  a  back  number  of  our  great  international 
publication.  The  Ladies  Home  Magazine,  the  following  advice  by 
one  Avho  signs  lierself ,  "An  Experienced  Sweetheart" :  "I  do  not 
recommend  any  unwomanly  tactics,  quite  the  contrary.  A  look,  a 
word,  a  touch,  will  suffice  if  he  is  responsive;  if  not,  there  will 
be  no  harm  done,  for  he  will  guess  nothing." 

Excellent  advice  for  our  mothers,  doubtless,  but  worse  than  use- 
less for  us.  We  are  no  longer  afraid  of  snakes.  We  have  dis- 
sected them  in  the  laboratory  and  preserved  them  in  alcohol. 
Are  we  so  credulous  as  to  believe  in  the  power  of  a  look,  a  word, 
or  a  touch  ?  No !  With  the  present  high  cost  of  living  the  most 
beguiling  look,  the  most  endearing  words,  and  the  most  sympa- 
thetic touch  would  be  of  no  avail.  Any  plan  which  is  to  be 
received  by  us  with  favor,  must  be  suited  to  the  woman  of  today, 
to  her  great  and  marvelous  advancement. 

Madam  Speaker,  I  cannot  prevail  upon  myself  to  hurry  over 
this  great  consideration.  Sixty-eight  years  ago  no  force  under 
heaven  would  have  been  a  power  to  persuade  you  that  within  the 
short  period  of  the  life  of  man  we  should  rise  to  our  present 
glory.    All  the  sanguine  credulity  of  youth  would  not  have  con- 


228  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

vinced  us  that  woman  who  then  served  for  little  more  than  to 
amuse  her  husband,  should  some  day  rule  him. 

Pardon  me,  if  turning  from  such  thoughts,  I  resume  my  argu- 
ment once  more. 

My  proposition  is  marriage.  Not  marriage  through  the  medium 
of  a  matrimonial  agency,  not  marriage  to  be  hunted  through  the 
labyrinth  of  intricate  and  endless  devices.  It  is  simple  marriage, 
proposed  by  the  woman  in  an  open  and  direct  manner. 

Fortunately  in  framing  my  resolution  I  am  not  obliged  to  tax 
my  own  unproductive  invention.  I  am  not  even  obliged  to  go  to 
the  rich  treasury  of  fiction  for  imaginary  instances  in  which 
women  have  proposed.  It  is  before  me ;  it  is  at  my  feet.  I  have 
here  an  ancient  act  of  Parliament  passed  in  the  year  1288. 

"It  is  statut  and  ordaint  that  during  the  reign  of  his  maist 
blessit  Mageste  for  ilk  yeare  knowne  as  lepe  yeare,  ilke  mayden 
of  bothe  highe  and  lowe  estait  shall  hae  liberte  to  bespeake  ye 
man  she  likes,  albeit  he  refuses  to  talk  her  to  be  his  layful  wyfe 
he  shall  be  mulcted  in  ye  sum  ane  pundes  or  less  as  his  estait  may 
be;  except  and  awis  gif  he  can  make  it  appeare  he  is  betrothed 
to  ane  other  woman  he  shall  be  free." 

It  was  also  an  unwritten  law  of  leap  year  that  if  a  man  should 
decline  a  proposal  he  should  soften  the  disappointment  by  pre- 
senting to  the  unsuccessful  suitor  a  silk  dress. 

It  is  my  purpose.  Madam,  to  cast  these  same  ancient  laws  into 
the  language  of  our  times.  The  resolution  which  I  lay  before 
you  is: 

Resolved,  That  on  every  fourth  year,  known  as  leap  year,  any 
spinster  shall  be  allowed  to  offer  herself  in  marriage  to  the  man 
she  loves,  and  if  he  refuses  to  make  her  his  lawful  wife  he  shall 
present  to  her  a  silk  dress,  except  it  be  publicly  known  that  he  is 
already  engaged  to  another  woman. 

With  this  law  in  effect  any  woman  who  cannot  satisfy  her 
affections  may  replenish  her  wardrobe. 

For  the  sake  of  the  "great  unasked,"  for  the  sake  of  that  most 
miserable  of  all  creatures,  a  bashful  man,  I  implore  you  to  look 
with  favor  upon  this  resolution. 

There  should  be  much  reading  aloud  of  Burke,  for 
the  appeal  of  the  speech  will  be  lost  unless  it  is  accom- 
panied by  the  appropriate  tone,  whether  it  be  biting 
irony  or  a  high  moral  appeal.    It  is  only  by  memorizing 


THE    TEACHING   OF    CERTAIN   CLASSICS       229 

some  of  the  beautiful  and  more  emotional  passages  that 
the  poetical  quality  of  his  prose  and  the  cadences  of 
his  style  can  be  fully  appreciated.  When  boys  and 
girls  repeat  that  passage  which  is  concluded  with  these 
words,  '^Neither  the  perseverance  of  Holland,  nor  the 
activity  of  France,  nor  the  dexterous  and  firm  sagacity 
of  English  enterprise,  ever  carried  this  most  perilous 
mode  of  hardy  industry  to  the  extent  to  which  it  has 
been  pushed  by  this  most  recent  people,"  they  not 
only  respond  to  the  rhythm  of  the  lines,  but  thrill  with 
patriotic  fervor  to  that  high  praise  of  American  spirit. 

There  is  another  side  to  the  study  of  Burke  which 
may,  perhaps,  be  best  touched  upon  incidentally,  but 
which,  especially  in  these  days  of  reconstruction  must 
not  be  overlooked — Burke's  essentially  high  and  noble 
ideals.  Political  conditions  have  changed,  and  yet  the 
philosophical  truths  which  he  utters  are  universal  in 
their  application,  and  the  high  ideal  to  which  he  sum- 
mons the  English  people  in  his  peroration  is  not  un- 
like the  words  of  our  own  President  when  he  strikes 
the  keynote  of  idealism  in  behalf  of  the  interests  of  all 
the  peoples  of  the  earth,  small  nations  as  well  as  great. 
"Magnanimity  in  politics  is  not  seldom  the  truest  wis- 
dom," is  a  statement  not  without  meaning  today. 
Augustine  Birrel  has  said,  "Wordsworth  has  been 
called  the  high  priest  of  Nature.  Burke  may  be  called 
the  high  priest  of  order^a  lover  of  settled  ways,  of 
justice,  of  peace  and  security."  Burke  was  not  only 
a  lover  of  law  and  order  but  a  defender  of  the  spirit  of 
freedom,  of  liberty  under  the  law — an  invaluable  ideal 
for  young  America  in  these  times. 

Let  it  not  be  objected  that  Burke^s  Speech  is  too 
abstract  or  too  far-removed  in  interest  from  the  lives 


230  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

of  boys  and  girls.  If  training  in  thoroughness,  appre- 
ciation of  order  and  beauty,  and  the  recognition  of 
high  political  ideals  and  moral  principles  are  desirable 
pedagogic  results,  the  study  of  Burke  may  well  be 
made  not  an  ordeal  but  an  inspiration. 

Emily  F.  Sleman 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

GENERAL    REFERENCES 

Fiske,  John.  The  American  Revolution,  Volume  I,  pages  1-120. 
Hart,  A.  B.    Essentials  of  American  History,  Period  1760-1775, 

Chapter  IX,  pages  135-164. 
Hart,  A.  B.     The  Formation  of  the  Union,  Chapter  HI. 
Howard,  George  Elliott.    Preliminaries  of  the  Revolution,  1763- 

1775. 
Lecky,   William   E.   H.      The  American  Revolution    (edited   by 

Woodbum),  pages  1-200.  x 

Van  Tyne,  C.  H.    The  American  Revolution,  Chapter  I. 
Ward,  C.  H.     Burke's  Speech  on  Conciliation,  with   Collateral 

Readings. 

SPECIAL  DEBATE  RErERENCES 

The  Stamp  Act: 

Hart^s  American  History  As  Told  by  Contemporaries,  Volume 

II,  pages  394-411. 
Howard's  Preliminaries,  pages  103,  104,  115,  118,  124. 
Lecky's  American  Revolution,  pages  87,  89,  105,  488,  489. 
The  Revenue  Controversy: 

Hart's  American  History  As  Told  by  Contemporaries,  Volume 

II,  pages  413-434. 
Hart's  Essentials  of  American  History,  page  105. 
Howard's  Preliminaries,  pages  42-44,  48-49,  52-53. 
The  Boston  Port  Bill: 

Burke's  Speech   on   Conciliation,  with   Collateral  Readings, 

edited  by  C.  H.  Ward. 
Hart's  American  History  Told  by  Contemporaries,  Volume 

II,  pages  434-454. 
Howard's  Preliminaries,  pages  259-280. 
Leck\''s  American  Revolution,  pages  163-168,  173-179, 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  HINTS  AND  GENERAL 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  HINTS 

Every  teacher  of  English  is  urged  to  become  a  reader 
of  each  of  the  following  current  publications  on  the 
teaching  of  English:  The  English  Journal,  published 
monthly  by  the  National  Council  of  Teachers  of  Eng- 
lish under  the  editorship  of  Mr.  James  Fleming  Hosic 
of  Chicago ;  The  English  Leaflet,  a  monthly  published 
by  the  New  England  Association  of  Teachers  of  *En- 
glish,  secretary- treasurer,  Mr.  A.  B.  de  Mille  of  Mil- 
ton, Massachusetts;  and  the  monthly  Bulletin  of  the 
Illinois  Association  of  Teachers  of  English,  edited  by 
H.  G.  Paul,  Urbana,  Illinois.  There  is  no  better  text- 
book on  the  teaching  of  English  than  the  files  up  to 
date  of  these  three  journals.  No  English  teacher,  in- 
deed, can  afford  to  miss  the  live  discussions  they 
contain  from  month  to  month. 

The  pamphlet,  Reorganization  of  English  in  Sec- 
ondary Schools,  compiled  by  a  committee  of  the 
National  Council  of  Teachers  of  English  under  the 
editorship  of  Mr.  Hosic  and  published  by  the  Bureau 
of  Education  is,  perhaps,  the  most  helpful  document 
yet  issued  for  the  teacher  of  English  in  planning 
courses  and  solving  problems  that  arise  from  day  to 
day.  It  can  be  procured  by  sending  a  request  and 
twenty  cents  to  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Docu- 
ments, Government  Printing  Office,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Certain  recent  books  on  the  teaching  of  English 

231 


232  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

should  be  especially  noted.  They  are:  What  Is  Eng- 
lish? by  C.  H.  Ward;  English  Composition  As  a  Social 
Problem  by  Sterling  Andrus  Leonard;  The  Teaching 
of  English  in  the  Secondary  School  by  Charles  Swain 
Thomas;  The  Teaching  of  Oral  English  and  The 
Teaching  of  Literature  in  the  Grammar  Grades  and 
High  School,  both  by  Emma  Miller  Bolenius. 

And  the  debt  we  owe  to  those  pioneers  in  our  sub- 
ject, Mr.  Percival  Chubb,  Mr.  George  Rice  Carpenter, 
Mr.  Franklin  T.  Baker,  and  Mr.  Fred  Newton  Scott 
should  not  be  forgotten.  No  bibliography  on  the 
teaching  of  English  is  complete  without  reference  to 
the  texts  of  these  authors :  The  Teaching  of  English 
by  Percival  Chubb  and  The  Teaching  of  English  by 
Carpenter,  Baker,  and  Scott.  They  form  the  basis 
of  all  later  discussions  of  the  subject. 

FOR  FURTHER  THOUGHT 

1.  Discuss  "accuracy  first"  as  treated  by  Mr.  Ward. 

2.  Discuss  the  "club  idea"  in  the  teaching  of  English  as  sug- 
gested by  Mr.  Leonard. 

3.  Sum  up  briefly  the  special  contributions  of  (1)  Leonard  and 
(2)  Ward  to  the  subject  of  teaching  English  composition. 

4.  Contrast  their  methods  and  style  of  presenting  a  problem. 

5.  Sum  up  briefly  the  special  contributions  of  (1)  Bolenius 
and  (2)  Thomas  to  the  subject  of  teaching  literature. 

6.  Contrast  their  methods  of  presentation. 

7.  Make  a  brief  appraisal  of  the  pamphlet.  Reorganization  of 
English  in  Secondary  Schools. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

GENERAL    METHOD 

Brown,  John  Franklin.  The  American  High  School.  The  Mae- 
millan  Co. 

Colvin,  Stephen  S.  An  Introduction  to  High-School  Teaching 
(Chapter  XV^  "The  Question  as  a  Method  of  Instruction"; 
Chapter  XVII,  "Supervised  Study").  The  Learning  Process. 
Tke  Macmillan  Co. 

Dean,  Arthur.  Our  Schools  in  War  Time  and  After.  Ginn  and 
Co. 

Dewey,  J.    Democracy  and  Education.    The  Macmillan  Co. 

Emerson,  Mabel  I.  The  Evolution  of  the  Educational  Ideal. 
Houghton  Mifflin  Co. 

Hall-Quest,  A.  L.    Supervised  Study.    The  Macmillan  Co. 

Hollister,  H.  A.  High-School  Administration;  High-School  and 
Class  Management.    D.  C.  Heath  and  Co. 

Tnglis,  Alexander.  Principles  of  Secondary  Education  (Chapter 
on  "The  Place  of  English  in  the  Program  of  Studies"). 
Houghton  Mifflin  Co. 

Johnston,  Charles  H.     The  Modern  High  School  (Chapter  XI, 
.  "Supervised  Study";  Chapter  XIX,  "Journalism").     High- 
School  Education  (Chapter  VIII,  "Socialized  High  School," 
and  Chapter  X,  "English").    Charles  Scribner's  Sons. 

Judd,  C.  H.  The  Psychology  of  High-School  Subjects.  Ginn 
and  Co. 

Kilpatriek,  V.  E.  Departmental  Teaching  in  Elementary  Schools. 
The  Macmillan  Co. 

Pahner,  G.  H.    The  Ideal  Teacher.    Houghton  Mifflin  Co. 

Parker,  S.  C.  Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools  (Chapter 
XX,  "The  Art  of  Questioning";  Chapter  XVI,  "Supervised 
Study";  Chapter  XXVI,  "Cooperation  in  the  Teaching  of 
English").     Ginn  and  Co. 

233 


234  ENGLISH   PROBLEMS 

Pearson,  Francis.     The  Vitalhed  School.     The  Macmillan  Co. 
Puffer,  J.  Adams.     Vocational  Guidance.     Rand,  McNally  &  Co. 
Snedden,    D.      Problems    of   Secondary   Education.      Houghton 
Mifflin  Co.  i 


THE    TEACHING    OP    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

Bolenius,  E.  M.  The  Teaching  of  Oral  English.  J.  B.  Lippineott 
Co. 

Brown,  RoUo.  How  the  French  Boy  Learns  to  Write.  Harvard 
University   Press. 

Campagnac,  E.  T.  Teaching  of  Composition.  Houghton  Mifflin 
Co. 

Carpenter,  Baker,  and  Scott.  The  Teaching  of  English.  Long- 
mans, Green,  &  Co. 

Chubb,  Percival.    The  Teaching  of  English.    The  Macmillan  Co. 

Colb3%  J.  Rose.  Shall  the  Courses  in  Composition  and  Literature 
Be  Divided f  Yes.  Bulletin  of  Illinois  A.  T.  E.,  March  15, 
1916. 

Hosic,  J.  F.  (Compiler).  Reorganization  of  English/ in  Secon- 
dary Schools.  (Report  by  the  National  Joint  Committee  on 
English,  N.  E.  A.  and  N.  C.  T.  E.)  Bulletin,  1917,  No.  2, 
Department  of  Interior,  Bureau  of  Education. 

Klapper,  P.  The  Teaching  of  English  in  Elementary  Schools. 
D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

Leonard,  S.  A.  English  Composition  As  a  Social  Problem. 
Houghton  Mifflin  Co. 

Lewis,  Calvin  L.    American  Speech.    Scott,  Foresman  and  Co. 

Mahoney,  J.  J.  Standards  in  English.  World  Book  Co.,  Yonkers- 
on-the-Hudson. 

Thomas,  Charles  Swain.  The  Teaching  of  English  in  the  Secon- 
dary School.    Houghton  Mifflin  Co. 

Ward,  C.  H.    What  Is  English?    Scott,  Foresman  and  Co. 

THE  TEACHING  OF  LITERATURE 

Bolenius,  E.  M.  The  Teaching  of  Literature  in  the  Grammar 
Grades  and  High  School.    Houghton  Mifflin  Co. 

Bates.  Arlo.  Talks  on  the  Teaching  of  Literature.  Houghton 
Mifflin  Co. 

Carpenter,  Baker,  and  Scott.  The  Teaching  of  English,  Long- 
mans, Green  &  Co. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  235 

Chubb,  P.  The  Teaching  of  English.  Festivals  and  Plays  in 
School  and  Elsewhere.  The  Shakespeare  Tercentenary.  The 
Macmillan  Co. 

Clarke,  S.  H.  Interpretation  of  the  Printed  Page.  How  to 
Teach  Reading.    Row,  Peterson  Co. 

Colby,  J.  Rose.  Literature  and  Life  in  the  School.  Houghton 
Mifflin  Co. 

Corson,  Hiram.  The  Voice  and  Spiritual  Education;  The  Aims 
of  Literary  Study.     The  Macmillan  Co. 

Fairchild,  A.  H.  R.  The  Teaching  of  Poetry  in  the  High  School. 
Houghton  Mifflin  Co. 

Haliburton  and  Smith.  Teaching  Poetry  in  the  Grades.  Hough- 
ton Miffln  Co. 

Hosie,  J.  F.  (Compiler).  Reorganization  of  English  in  Secondary 
Schools.  Bulletin,  1917,  No.  2,  Bureau  of  Education,  Super- 
intendent of  Public  Documents,  Government  Printing  Office. 

Smith,  C.  Alphonso.  What  Can  Literature  Do  for  Mef  Double- 
day,  Page  and  Co. 

Thomas,  C.  S.  The  Teaching  of  English  in  the  Secondary  School. 
Houghton  Mifflin  Co. 

Ward,  C.  H.  Burke's  Speech  on  Conciliation,  with  Collateral 
Readings,    Scott,  Foresman  and  Co. 

Woodberry,  G.  E.  Appreciation  of  Literature  (Chapter  on 
"First  Principles").     The  Baker  Taylor  Co. 

PERIODICALS 

The  English  Journal: 

Published  by  the  National  Council  of  Teachers  of  English, 
Chicago,   Illinois.     Editor,   James   Fleming   Hosic. 
The  English  Leaflet: 

Published  by  the  New  England  Association  of  Teachers  of 
English,  Boston,  Massachusetts.    A.  B.  de  Mille. 

The  High-School  Journal: 

Published  by  the  University  of  North  Carolina. 
The  Illinois  Bulletin: 

Published  by  the  Illinois  Association  of  Teachers  of  English. 
H.  G.  Paul,  Urbana,  Illinois. 
The  Chicago  School  Record: 

Published  by  the  Chicago  Public-School  Teachers. 


INDEX 


Abbott,  Allan,  178. 

Alden,  Henry  Mills,  168. 

American  literature,  161i-167; 
necessity  for  study  of,  161- 
163;  method  of  study,  163- 
167. 

Assignment,  the,  34-37. 

Bacon,  Francis,  135. 

Better  Speech,  71-83. 

Bibliography,  junior  high  school, 
11;  definition  and  aims,  18; 
minimum  essentials  for  junior 
highi-school  English,  22;  sep- 
aration of  composition  and 
literature,  26;  the  problem  of 
the  start,  33-34;  supervised 
study,  37 ;  correlation,  41 ; 
grammar,  47 ;  punctuation, 
56;  spelling,  61-62;  vocabu- 
lary, 70;  better  speech,  84; 
written  work,  95;  letter  writ- 
ing, 104-105;  correction,  108- 
109;  measurement  of  results, 
111;  choice  of  literature,  117; 
teaching  of  literature,  129-130; 
reading,  138;  imitation,  148; 
dramatization,  159^160;  Ameri- 
can literature,  167 ;  magazine, 
173;  World  War,  176;  history 
of  literature,  180;  teaching 
poetry,  196-197;  the  drama, 
200,  201 ;  teaching  the  Odyssey, 
211;  teaching  of  Shakespeare, 
221;     teaching     Burke,     230; 


hints,  231-232;  general  meth- 
ods, 232-234;  teaching  of  Eng- 
lish composition,  234;  teaching 
of  literature,  234-235. 

Bolenius,  Emma,  205. 

Book,  the,  make-up  of,  35,  123, 
124. 

Boynton,  Percy,  162. 

Brown,  Rollo,  19,  59. 

Burke,  teaching  of,  221-229;  ap- 
proach to  speech,  222;  col- 
lateral reading,  223;  method 
of  analysis,  223-225;  word- 
study,  225;  imitative  writing, 
223-228 ;  present  significance, 
228-230. 

Butler,  Nicholas  M.,  86. 

Chancellor,  Louise  B.,  215. 

Chubb,  Percival,  16,  45,  113,  141, 
212. 

Club  idea,  28;  in  teaching  literal 
ture,   117-123. 

Cody,  Sherwin,  60. 

Colby,  J.  Rose,  24,  134,  163. 

Conference,  the,   107-108. 

Correction  of  themes,  105-108; 
proof-reading,  105-106;  mark- 
ing,  106,   110. 

Correlation,  37'-41. 

Corson,  Hiram,  184. 

Cunningham,  W.  H.,  32,  115,  119. 

Current  events,  in  the  English 
class,  167-175. 


237 


>38 


INDEX 


Deahl,  Jasper  N.,   141. 
Definition  and  aims,  composition, 

11-15;    literature,    15-18. 
Dewey,  John,  115,  139.  , 

Drama  course,  197-201 ;  method, 

reading,  197;  suggestions,  198, 

199;  list  of  plays  for  reading, 

200. 
Dramatization,  148-159;  a  means 

of  appreciation,  148-153;   su^ 

gestions  for,   153-159. 

Ellis,  Havelock,  60. 
Erskine,  John,  132. 

Fairchild,  A.  H.  R.,  184. 

Form,     minimum     requirements 

of,  39. 
Fowler,  H.  E.,   165. 

Grammar,  42-47. 

Hall,  G.  Stanley,  153. 

History  of  literature,  method  of 

treating,   176-179. 
Hitchcock,  Alfred,  86. 
Hosic,  James  F.,  15,  37,  131. 

Imitative  writing,  an  aid  in 
teaching  composition,  139-144; 
an  aid  in  teaching  literaure, 
144-145;  illustrations  of,  145- 
148;    193,  194:   208,  209;   226. 

Inglis,  Alexander,  23. 

Jenness,  Mary  E.,  121. 

Junior  high  school,  7-11;  mini- 
mum essentials  in  English,  19- 
22:  the  start.  26-33. 

Leonard,  S.  A.,  12,  50,  55,  87,  93. 


Letter-writing,  95-104;  friendly, 
96-102;  business  form,  102- 
103;  specimens,  98-102;  postal 
instructions,   102-104. 

Literature,  choice  of,  112>-116; 
teaching  of,  117-129;  use  of 
short  story  in,  119-123;  de- 
vices for  vitalizing,  124-129, 

MacClintock,  Porter  Lander,  152. 
Magazine,    the,    use    in    English 

class,  167-173. 
Mahoney,  J.  J.,  50. 
Matthews,  B.,  149. 
McCain,  H.  P.,  13,  73. 
Merrill,  Margaret  B.,  31. 
Miller,  Edwin,  37,  142. 
Morse,  Katherine,  16. 

Noyes,  Alfred,  215,  216. 

Odyssey,  teaching  of,  202-211; 
place,  junior  high,  202;  ap- 
proach, 203-205 ;  methods : 
memorizing,  dramatization,  im- 
itation, 205-209;  example  of 
imitative  writing,  208,  209; 
value,  211. 

Opdycke,  J.  D.,  114. 

Oral  English,  71-81. 

Palmer,  G.  H.,  67. 

Pendleton,  C.  S.,  8,  15,  16. 

Poetry,  teaching  of  in  junior 
high  school,  180-189;  aims, 
181;  kinds,  181-183;  method, 
183-185;  Sohrah  and  Rustum, 
185,  186;  in  senior  high  school, 
189-196;  lyric  poetry,  190-192; 
pupil  imitation  of  Keats,  193, 
194;  war  lyrics,  194;  L* Alle- 
gro and  T1  Penseroso,  194-196. 


INDEX 


239 


Public  speaking,  81-83. 
Punctuation,  48-56. 


Supervised  study,  34-35. 
Suzzalo,  Henry,  88. 


Reading,  130-138;  outside,  136- 
138;  reports  on,  137-138. 

Separation  of  composition  and 
literature,  22-26. 

Shakespeare,  teaching  of,  211- 
220;  in  junior  high  school, 
212,  213;  in  senior  high  school, 
213-220;  methods,  214;  refer- 
ences on  the  period,  215;  sug- 
gested dramatizations,  215- 
218;  presentation  of  plays, 
218-220. 

Smith,  Alphonso,  184. 

Snedden,  David,  23,  25,  77. 

Socialized  class,  29-32. 

Spelling,  56-61;  team,  57-58;  in- 
tensive, 58-59;  vitalizing,  59- 
60;    stock-book,  61. 

Stevenson,  R.  L.,  141. 

Stratton,  Clarence,  31,  71. 

Summey,  George,  48. 


Thomas,  Charles  S.,  37. 
Thompson,  C.  J.,  32. 

Vocabulary,  62-69 ;  dictionary 
study,  64-65;  slang,  65-66;  en- 
larging, 67. 

Walker,  Albert,  196. 

Ward,  C.  H.,  46,  49,  58. 

Warner,  Frances  L.,  118,  126. 

Webster,  E.,  117. 

Wendell,  Barrett,  66,  168. 

World  War,  in  the  English  class. 
173-175. 

W^ritten  work,  84-94;  necessity 
for,  84-87;  method,  87<-88; 
subject  matter,  88-89;  in  the 
classroom,  89;  audience  for, 
90-91;  frequency,  92-93;  sum- 
mary  of  points  to  be  con- 
sidered, 94. 


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